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Kamran Asdar Ali. Communism in Pakistan: Politics and Class Activism 1947- 1972. London, U.K.: I. B. Tauris & Co. Ltd./Philip Wilson Publishers Ltd. 2015. 304 pages. £ 59.00.
Full text linkThe book is divided into two parts consisting of eight
chapters, including the introductory and concluding chapters, and an
epilogue. It is a 304 page book including notes and references, which
are not only interesting but are very helpful for any reader interested
in the topic. The introductory chapter sets the stage for the reader,
introducing her to the diversity of nations living in the geographical
boundaries of Pakistan and points to the failure of their integration in
the state project. The author also touches upon the ethnic and
nationalistic struggles played out in Pakistan throughout history and
their relationship with the politics of the left. Furthermore, he
reiterates that mainstream discourse on Pakistan’s history presents the
struggle for separate nation in unified India as a struggle of a
monolith Muslim nation in the sub-continent largely ignoring the ethnic,
cultural and linguistic diversity of these Muslims, thereby undermining
their aspirations for freedom, self-determination and autonomy. The
Bengali and the Baloch freedom movements have been cited as examples of
what he calls the “collective amnesia” of the nation and notes that
resistance, or left-leaning, movements have also been largely ignored in
mainstream discourses on the history of Pakistan
Children in left-behind migrant households: education and gender equality
Full text linkThis paper analyses the effect of migration of men from rural areas in Pakistan on children in households “left behind” by the migrants. Left-behind households’ expenditure on children’s education and the gendered distribution of these expenditures are two outcomes of main interest. First, it is tested if left-behind households have higher overall expenditures on children’s education. Second, it is tested if migration of men from households reduces gender inequality in households’ expenditures on children’s education. This gendered distribution is analyzed by estimating the effect of migration on the share of households’ education expenditures spent on girls. Migration can affect these expenditures and its gendered distribution through various channels. Men’s migration may lead to women taking over household decisions regarding education expenditures. Migration may also transfer norms and alter peoples’ preferences such as those regarding children’s schooling. To differentiate between the channels two types of migration, permanent migration of men for employment creating “left-behind” households and temporary migration whereby male members migrate for employment for short periods during the year, have been considered. Transfer of norms is expected to operate through temporary migration episodes as well as via permanent migration, while the changes in women’s decision making is expected to operate via permanent migration when the men are absent. The effect of remittances has been further separated from the effect of migration. The paper uses longitudinal data from rural households in Pakistan with additional data collected from a sub-sample of the panel by the author. Fixed effects fixed effects model (FEM) is used to estimate these relationships, reducing endogeneity of migration. The results suggest that migrant and non-migrant households in the sample do not have significantly different expenditures on children’s schooling and education. This is true for both types of migration. Households that receive remittances have higher expenditures on children’s education. A noteworthy result is that left-behind households have girls’ shares that are higher as much as 18 percent than the average. This is not the case for households with temporary migrants, suggesting that women’s decision participation decreases gender inequality in households’ education expenditures. Heckman Selection Model has additionally been estimated to estimate the effect of the migration on households’ expenditure on girls’ education, considering the selection of households into sending girls to school. Heckman Selection model also suggests that left-behind households have higher per girl expenditures. The results of the selection model suggest that being a left-behind household is significantly positively associated with households’ expenditures on girls’ education
Empowerment of Girls and Women in Rural Pakistan : Migration, Decision-making and Consciousness
Full text linkThis thesis analyses the effect of migration of men on women and children left behind in rural households in Pakistan. Part one analyses the impact on left-behind women’s participation in household decisions and number of hours of work. In part two, the effect on children’s work, children’s education expenditures and on gender differentials in expenditures are analysed. In the last part, it is tested if participation of women in household decisions and women’s consciousness of gender equality, reduce gender differentials in households’ education expenditures. Analysis is based on longitudinal data of rural households in Pakistan (Pakistan Rural Household Panel Survey, IFPRI & IDS, 2012; 2014). Additional data from a sub-sample of the panel collected by the author in the year 2017 has been appended to the panel. Results of the analyses suggest that men’s migration and remittances affect women’s participation in household decisions differently in extended family and nuclear family households. Women are more likely to participate in household’s expenditure decisions if they receive remittances. However, left-behind wives’ participation in households expenditure decisions increases due to remittances only in nuclear households. For agricultural production decisions, left-behind wives in nuclear family households are more likely, while those in extended family households are less likely to participate if they do not receive remittances. Migration of men reduces women’s time spent in households’ own enterprise-related and domestic work. Remittances lower hours spent by recipient women in paid and domestic work. However, left-behind wives in extended family households who do not receive remittances, spend more hours in domestic work. Migrant households do not have significantly higher expenditures on children’s education than non-migrant households. However, remittances increase households’ education expenditures. Independent of remittances, migrant households have higher share of education expenditures spent on education of girls. Girls are also more likely to be sent to school and receive higher education expenditures in migrant households. The analysis also suggests that households where women participate in decisions regarding children’s education have higher shares of expenditures spent on education of girls in the secondary school age group. Households where women participate in education decisions and exhibit consciousness towards gender equality in education, girl children are more likely to attend school. The results also suggest that households where women participate in decisions spend more on the education of girl children.Diese Arbeit analysiert die Auswirkungen der Migration von Männern auf Frauen und Kinder, die in ländlichen Haushalten in Pakistan zurückgelassen werden. Im ersten Teil werden die Auswirkungen auf die Beteiligung zurückgelassener Frauen an Haushaltsentscheidungen und deren Arbeit untersucht. Im zweiten Teil werden die Auswirkungen auf die Arbeit der Kinder, die Bildungsausgaben für Kindern und auf die geschlechtsspezifischen Unterschiede bei den Ausgaben analysiert. Im letzten Teil wird geprüft, ob die Beteiligung von Frauen an Haushaltsentscheidungen und das Bewusstsein der Frauen für die Gleichstellung der Geschlechter die geschlechtsspezifischen Unterschiede bei den Bildungsausgaben der Haushalte verringern. Die Analyse basiert auf Längsschnittdaten ländlicher Haushalte in Pakistan (Pakistan Rural Household Panel Survey, IFPRI & IDS, 2012; 2014). Zusätzliche Daten aus einer Teilstichprobe des Panels, die der Autor im Jahr 2017 erhoben hat, wurden dem Panel beigefügt. Die Ergebnisse der Analysen deuten darauf hin, dass die Migration und Überweisungen von Männern die Beteiligung von Frauen an Haushaltsentscheidungen in Großfamilien- und Kernfamilienhaushalten unterschiedlich beeinflussen. Frauen sind eher an den Ausgabenentscheidungen der Haushalte beteiligt, wenn sie Rücküberweisungen erhalten. Jedoch nimmt die Beteiligung der zurückgelassenen Ehefrauen an den Ausgabenentscheidungen der Haushalte aufgrund von Rücküberweisungen nur in Kernfamilienhaushalten zu. Bei Entscheidungen über die landwirtschaftliche Produktion sind zurückbleibende Ehefrauen, wenn sie keine Rücküberweisungen erhalten, in Kernfamilienhaushalten wahrscheinlicher an Ausgabenentscheidungen beteiligt, als diese Frauen in Großfamilienhaushalten. Die Migration von Männern verringert die Zeit, die Frauen in Haushalten mit eigener Unternehmens- und Hausarbeit verbringen. Rücküberweisungen verringern die Stunden, die die Empfängerfrauen mit bezahlter Arbeit und Hausarbeit verbringen. Zurückgebliebene Ehefrauen in Großfamilienhaushalten, die keine Rücküberweisungen erhalten, verbringen jedoch mehr Stunden mit Hausarbeit. Migrantenhaushalte haben keine wesentlich höheren Ausgaben für die Ausbildung von Kindern als Nicht-Migrantenhaushalte. Allerdings erhöhen Rücküberweisungen die Bildungsausgaben der Haushalte. Unabhängig von Rücküberweisungen haben Migrantenhaushalte einen höheren Anteil an den Bildungsausgaben, die für die Bildung von Mädchen aufgewendet werden. Mädchen aus Migrantenhaushalten werden mit einer höheren Wahrscheinlichkeit zur Schule geschickt und erhalten höhere Bildungsausgaben. Die Analyse deutet auch darauf hin, dass Haushalte, in denen Frauen an Entscheidungen über die Bildung von Kindern beteiligt sind, einen höheren Anteil an den Ausgaben für die Bildung von Mädchen im Sekundarschulalter haben. Haushalte, in denen Frauen an Bildungsentscheidungen beteiligt sind und ein Bewusstsein für die Gleichberechtigung der Geschlechter in der Bildung zeigen, haben eine höhere Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass Mädchen die Schule besuchen. Die Ergebnisse deuten auch darauf hin, dass Haushalte, in denen Frauen an Entscheidungen beteiligt sind, mehr für die Bildung von Mädchen ausgeben
Women’s participation in household decisions and gender equality in children’s education : Evidence from rural households in Pakistan
Full text linkIn this study we test if households where women participate in decisions regarding children’s education incur more equal expenditures on education of boys and girls. To this end, we estimate changes in households’ share of education expenditures spent on girls due to changes in women’s participation in household decisions. Moreover, we test the effect of changes in women’s awareness of gender equality (AGE) on these shares. These effects are estimated with a Fixed Effects Model (FEM) using three rounds of longitudinal data of rural households in Pakistan. Our results show that households with children of both genders of the secondary school-age (11–16), where women participate in decisions, spend higher shares of education expenditures on girls. These shares are as much as sixty percent higher than those of the average household. Furthermore, to tackle selection of households into sending children to school, we estimate a Heckman Selection Model. The dependent variable of the Heckman Selection Model is the share of household total education expenditure spent on an individual child. Our results show that girls in households where women participate in decisions and with AGE are more likely to receive a share of expenditure 12.6 percentage points higher than boys. Also, the combination of AGE and women’s participation in household decisions is also highly correlated with the share of secondary education expenditure for girls when distance to school is not long. By using the shares instead of actual expenditures, we show factors that correlate with gender equality. The paper provides evidence of effectiveness of women’s decision participation in reducing gender inequality, a dimension of empowerment hitherto less explored in literature
Does the Absence of Men from the Household Increase Girls’ Shares in Education Expenditures? Evidence from Rural Pakistan
Full text linkThis article investigates the impact of men’s migration on expenditure by left-behind households on children’s education, focusing on the gendered distribution of this expenditure. Using longitudinal survey data of rural households in Pakistan, the effect of men’s migration on the share of households’ education expenditure spent on girls is estimated using the fixed-effects model (FEM). Results suggest that in households from which men migrate for periods longer than six months, the share of education expenditures spent on girls is up to 31 percent higher than that of the average household in the sample. There is no evidence of a significant impact on households’ total education expenditure due to this migration. Overall, in households where men are absent, the distribution of education expenditure tilts in favor of girls. A possible mechanism behind the increase in girls’ shares is the greater participation of women in household decisions in the absence of men
Going Beyond Counting First Authors in Author Co-citation Analysis
Full text linkThe present study examines one of the fundamental aspects of author co-citation analysis (ACA) - the way co-citation
counts are defined. Co-citation counting provides the data on which all subsequent statistical analyses and mappings
are based, and we compare ACA results based on two different types of co-citation counting - the traditional type that
only counts the first one among a cited work's authors on the one hand and a non-traditional type that takes into
account the first 5 authors of a cited work on the other hand. Results indicate that the picture produced through this non-traditional author co-citation counting contains more coherent author groups and is therefore considerably clearer. However, this picture represents fewer specialties in the research field being studied than that produced through the traditional first-author co-citation counting when the same number of top-ranked authors is selected and analyzed. Reasons for these effects are discussed
Variations on the Author
Full text link“Variations on the Author” discusses two of Eduardo Coutinho’s recent films (Um Dia na Vida, from 2010, and Últimas Conversas, posthumously released in 2015) and their contribution to the general question of documentary authorship. The director’s filmography is characterized by a consistent yet self-effacing form of authorial self-inscription: Coutinho often features as an interviewer that rather than express opinions propels discourses; an interviewer that is good at listening. This mode of self-inscription characterizes him as an author who is not expressive but who is nonetheless markedly present on the screen. In Um Dia na Vida, however, Coutinho is completely absent form the image, while Últimas Conversas, on the contrary, includes a confessional prologue that moves the director from the margins to the center of his films. This article examines the ways in which these works stand out in the filmography of a director who offers new insights into the notion of cinematic authorship
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