1,720,966 research outputs found
Prohibited Force The Meaning of 'Use of Force' in International Law
Full text linkProhibited 'use of force' under article 2(4) of the UN Charter and customary international law has until now not been clearly defined, despite its central importance in the international legal order and for international peace and security. This book accordingly offers an original framework to identify prohibited uses of force in areas that are usually less studied, such as those that use emerging technology or take place in newer military domains like outer space. In doing so, Erin Pobjie explains the emergence of the customary prohibition and its relationship with article 2(4) and identifies the elements of a prohibited 'use of force'. In a major contribution to the scholarship, the book proposes a framework that defines a 'use of force' in international law and applies this framework to illustrative case studies to demonstrate its usefulness as a tool for students, legal scholars, and practitioners
Понятие запрещенного "применения силы" в международном праве
Full text linkНесмотря на то, что вопрос об определении понятия запрещенного "применения силы" в соответствии со статьей 2(4) Устава ООН и обычным международным занимает центральное место в международном правопорядке, в его отношении среди государств, ученых и юристов сохраняется в полном смысле слова неопределенность. Этой неопределенностью нередко пользуются государства, которые стремятся занизить существующие требования к соблюдению данной нормы. В связи с этим в Эрин Побье „Понятие запрещенного "применения силы" в международном праве“ представлена и применена оригинальная исходная концепция - так называемая «теория типов», используемая для определения запрещенного "применения силы" между государствами с акцентом на понятии "применения силы". В статье утверждается, что запрещенное "применение силы" между государствами характеризуется целым рядом элементов, причем не все из них должны обязательно присутствовать, чтобы конкретное деяние подпадало под это понятие. Напротив, эти элементы, включая определенные типы последствий, тяжесть и намерение, определяются, взвешиваются и оцениваются для того, чтобы установить, соблюден ли, как минимум, нижний порог определения "применения силы". Применяя теорию типов к конкретным примерам из практики, автором публикации делаются принципиальные выводы относительно определения "применения силы" и демонстрируется полезность данной теории как инструмента для ученых-юристов и практиков
Cosmic Force: A Framework for Applying the Prohibition of the Use of Force in Outer Space
Full text linkOuter space is becoming increasingly contested and existing approaches to identifying prohibited force in outer space lack a systematic foundation, hindering their application to novel challenges such as temporary interference with critical satellites or threats involving commercial space actors. This article addresses this gap by developing the first comprehensive, multifactorial legal framework for identifying a prohibited use of force in outer space. This framework provides a structured method for analyzing non-kinetic actions, temporary effects, and persistent hazards like space debris. It fundamentally advances existing legal approaches in three ways. First, it establishes when States can be implicated in a violation of jus ad bellum through the activities of commercial space actors, even absent traditional attribution requirements, due to Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty. Second, it redefines the concept of victim States of space-based uses of force, offering legal criteria that account for the complex operational realities of space activities, including shared satellites, hosted payloads, and multinational reliance on space-based services. Third, it demonstrates how interfering with critical space-based services or creating space debris through kinetic anti-satellite tests can qualify as prohibited force, addressing scenarios that transcend conventional notions of inter-State force. Through this systematic analysis, the framework operationalizes Article 2(4) of the UN Charter for contemporary space activities, offering a principled method for evaluating unprecedented challenges to international peace and security in the space domain
The Meaning of Prohibited 'Use of Force' in International Law
Full text linkDespite its central importance in the international legal order, there remains genuine uncertainty among States, scholars and jurists about the meaning of a prohibited ‘use of force’ under article 2(4) of the United Nations Charter and customary international law. This ambiguity is exploited by States and undermines compliance with the norm. This chapter accordingly presents and applies an original framework – type theory – to identify prohibited ‘uses of force’ between States, focusing on the meaning of ‘use of force’ as well as the contextual requirement of ‘international relations’. It argues that a prohibited ‘use of force’ between States is characterised by a basket of elements, not all of which must necessarily be present in order for an act to meet the definition. Instead, these elements – including certain types of effects, gravity and intention – are identified and weighed to determine whether the threshold of the definition of a ‘use of force’ is met. The theory of ‘type’ is firstly set out before explaining how it applies to the prohibition of the use of force, with illustrative examples from State practice, including the attempted killings of George Bush and Sergei Skripal and instances of excessive or unlawful maritime law enforcement. Finally, this chapter applies the type theory framework to a potential ‘use of force’ in an emerging military domain – the testing of anti-satellite (ASAT) weapons in outer space – to illustrate how it can be applied in novel contexts. In applying the type theory framework to these concrete case studies, this chapter draws definitive conclusions regarding the definition of a ‘use of force’ and demonstrates the usefulness of this theory as a tool for legal scholars and practitioners
Going Beyond Counting First Authors in Author Co-citation Analysis
Full text linkThe present study examines one of the fundamental aspects of author co-citation analysis (ACA) - the way co-citation
counts are defined. Co-citation counting provides the data on which all subsequent statistical analyses and mappings
are based, and we compare ACA results based on two different types of co-citation counting - the traditional type that
only counts the first one among a cited work's authors on the one hand and a non-traditional type that takes into
account the first 5 authors of a cited work on the other hand. Results indicate that the picture produced through this non-traditional author co-citation counting contains more coherent author groups and is therefore considerably clearer. However, this picture represents fewer specialties in the research field being studied than that produced through the traditional first-author co-citation counting when the same number of top-ranked authors is selected and analyzed. Reasons for these effects are discussed
Variations on the Author
Full text link“Variations on the Author” discusses two of Eduardo Coutinho’s recent films (Um Dia na Vida, from 2010, and Últimas Conversas, posthumously released in 2015) and their contribution to the general question of documentary authorship. The director’s filmography is characterized by a consistent yet self-effacing form of authorial self-inscription: Coutinho often features as an interviewer that rather than express opinions propels discourses; an interviewer that is good at listening. This mode of self-inscription characterizes him as an author who is not expressive but who is nonetheless markedly present on the screen. In Um Dia na Vida, however, Coutinho is completely absent form the image, while Últimas Conversas, on the contrary, includes a confessional prologue that moves the director from the margins to the center of his films. This article examines the ways in which these works stand out in the filmography of a director who offers new insights into the notion of cinematic authorship
Appropriate Similarity Measures for Author Cocitation Analysis
Full text linkWe provide a number of new insights into the methodological discussion about author cocitation analysis. We first argue that the use of the Pearson correlation for measuring the similarity between authors’ cocitation profiles is not very satisfactory. We then discuss what kind of similarity measures may be used as an alternative to the Pearson correlation. We consider three similarity measures in particular. One is the well-known cosine. The other two similarity measures have not been used before in the bibliometric literature. Finally, we show by means of an example that our findings have a high practical relevance.information science;Pearson correlation;cosine;similarity measure;author cocitation analysis
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