1,720,983 research outputs found
Effect of Cold Smoking on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Content and Sensory Properties in Selected Foods
No full textSmoking is a traditional method of food preservation and has improved over time with technology. The biggest problem with smoking is that the combustion of wood results in the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). These compounds are carcinogenic and can contaminate food. Thus, the European Union has imposed an upper limit (dependant of food type) of 1 to 50 μg/kg of carcinogenic PAH (sum of benzo(a)pyrene, benz(a)anthracene, benzo(b)fluoranthene and chrysene). New methods such as cold smoking, friction smoking, liquid smoking, and electrostatic precipitation have been introduced to reduce PAHs in smoked foods. Currently, PAHs are analysed in food using solid-phase extraction, followed by the “QuEChERS” method to clean the extract. PAHs are then quantified using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS). The purpose of the review section of this study is to give a comprehensive view on the process of food smoking, the benefits, the regulations and ways to quantify PAH in foods.
In this study chicken, cheese and crackers were cold smoked with Native New Zealand wood chips (Manuka, Tawa, Rewa Rewa and Pohutukawa). The QuEChERS technique was used to extract PAHs, followed by quantification using gas chromatography in tandem with mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). Cold smoking time (5 to 120 minutes) had the most influence on final PAH concentration (varied from 10.84 ± 1.70 to 112084.74 ± 8784.14 μg/kg). Chicken breast that was cold smoked for 5 minutes using Manuka wood and had the lowest PAH concentration. An untrained sensory panel (n=50) rated chicken breast that had been cold smoked with Manuka, Tawa, Rewa Rewa and Pohutukawa based on overall liking, odour, appearance, texture, smokiness, and flavour. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that Manuka cold smoked chicken was most favoured among panellists
Production of Kombucha With New Flavour Using Chinese Oolong Tea (Tie Guan Yin)
No full textKombucha is a slightly carbonated, sweet and acidic refreshing beverage obtained from the fermentation of tea and sugar with a symbiotic interaction between bacteria and yeasts. Due to its inherent health benefits, it gained strong global market interest over the past decade. From previous studies, oolong tea has many health benefits such as anti-obesity effects and antioxidant capacity. However, oolong tea was rarely used as substrates in kombucha. In this study, kombucha was made with Chinese oolong tea (OT) - Tie Guan Yin (TGY), and sucrose. pH, titratable acidity, colour, ethanol, acetic acid, gluconic acid, amino acids, minor organic acids, sugars, total phenolic content, antioxidant activities and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in kombucha were analysed. As the fermentation time increased, the pH of kombucha declined from 4.69 to 2.80 in 21 days which was mirrored by a significant increase in titratable acidity. In general, the colour of kombucha became lighter as fermentation progressed. The concentration of ethanol and gluconic acid reached the highest values after 21 days of fermentation. However, acetic acid tends to increase significantly and reached a maximum value of about 7.753 g/L at day 14 of fermentation, followed by a decrease to about 4.675 g/L at the end of the 21-day fermentation period. There were nine free amino acids detected in kombucha in this study which included alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, proline, threonine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid and phenylalanine. However, all of them decreased significantly (below 0.0025 μmol/mL) after 10 days of fermentation. In terms of minor organic acids after 21 days of fermentation, succinic acid, malic acid, citric acid, maleic acid and malonic acid were detected. The content of sucrose plummeted from 54.59 g/L to 11.95 g/L in the first 10 days of fermentation, and there was little change as fermentation progressed. Besides, glucose and fructose were detected on day 10 of fermentation, but the content of both decreased to 13.15 g/L and 17.48 g/L after 21 days of fermentation, respectively. This is due to the conversion of monosaccharide into other compounds, such as ethanol, acetic acid, and cellulose during fermentation. Notably, the consumption rate of glucose was faster than that of fructose after 10 days, which indicated that glucose was selected preferentially as the carbon source rather than fructose by kombucha microflora. The antioxidant activity of kombucha were analyzed by three common assays, CUPRAC, FRAP and phosphomolybdenum. All these three methods showed an increasing trend during fermentation, which corresponds to the concentration of polyphenols, and the antioxidant capacity increased more rapidly in the first 10 days. SPME assay indicated that some characteristic aroma compounds of OT were retained in kombucha made with TGY in this study, such as (E)-hex-2-enal and 3-methylbutan- 1-ol. Meanwhile, alcohols, acids and esters were generated during fermentation, such as nonanoic acid, ethyl ester, octanoic acid and decanoic acid, formed the unique aroma of kombucha
Going Beyond Counting First Authors in Author Co-citation Analysis
Full text linkThe present study examines one of the fundamental aspects of author co-citation analysis (ACA) - the way co-citation
counts are defined. Co-citation counting provides the data on which all subsequent statistical analyses and mappings
are based, and we compare ACA results based on two different types of co-citation counting - the traditional type that
only counts the first one among a cited work's authors on the one hand and a non-traditional type that takes into
account the first 5 authors of a cited work on the other hand. Results indicate that the picture produced through this non-traditional author co-citation counting contains more coherent author groups and is therefore considerably clearer. However, this picture represents fewer specialties in the research field being studied than that produced through the traditional first-author co-citation counting when the same number of top-ranked authors is selected and analyzed. Reasons for these effects are discussed
Exploring New Zealand Honeydew Honey, Yacon Concentrate, and their Novel Food and Health Applications
No full textIn order to understand the physical and functional properties of food products, it is essential to obtain physicochemical and sensory information. Without this information, it would be impossible to establish market opportunities, as manufacturers and researchers would be unable to predict consumer acceptance. In this thesis, physicochemical principles were used to understand the properties of New Zealand honeydew honey (NZHDH) and New Zealand yacon concentrate (NZYC). Subsequently, NZHDH and NZYC were incorporated into a novel food product (low alcohol beer), which was analysed using both physicochemical principles and sensory evaluations. Finally, alternative applications of NZHDH and NZYC were investigated, including their inhibitory effects on the formation of acrylamide, their anti-diabetic and anti-obesity properties, and their anti-microbial properties.
In Chapter 3, the physicochemical properties of NZHDH such as proximate composition, mineral, sugar, phenolic, and amino acid profiles, and antioxidant activity, were determined. Results indicated the major mineral in NZHDH was potassium, with significant amounts of phosphorus, magnesium, and sodium. The major sugars were fructose and glucose, while sugars unique to NZHDH such as palatinose, turanose, erlose, and melezitose were also detected, with erlose dominating over melezitose. The major phenolic compounds were pinocembrin, abscisic acid, and pinobanksin, with this being the first comprehensive phenolic profiling of NZHDH conducted to the author’s knowledge. Proline was the major amino acid; L-aspartic acid, L-glutamic acid, L-alanine, and L-phenylalanine were the next most abundant, with this being the first profiling of the amino acid content of NZHDH to the author’s knowledge. The antioxidant activity of NZHDH was comparable to literature values for Mānuka honey, considered to be the “gold standard” for antioxidant activity. Overall, NZHDH was comparable to other more well-described varieties of HDH in the literature, suggesting it would have similar health-promoting benefits.
In Chapter 4, the physicochemical properties of NZYC such as proximate composition, mineral, sugar, phenolic, amino acid, and organic acid profiles, antioxidant activity, and glycaemic index (GI), were determined. Results indicated that the major mineral in NZYC was potassium, with significant amounts of phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium also identified. Fructose was the major sugar; NZYC was also found to have high total content of fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and inulins (non-digestible prebiotic carbohydrates) which have been associated with numerous health benefits including gut health and weight loss, among others. Chlorogenic acid and caffeic acid were the major phenolic compounds; L-arginine, L-glutamic acid, L-proline, L-aspartic acid, and asparagine were the major amino acids; citric acid was the major organic acid. The antioxidant activity of NZYC was found to be several times higher than Mānuka honey, and NZYC was determined to be a low-GI food. Overall, these results indicate that NZYC may have excellent health-promoting benefits, particularly in the areas of gut health, weight loss, and antioxidative effects.
In Chapter 5, five novel flavoured low alcohol beers (LABs) (and one control beer) incorporating NZHDH and/or NZYC were developed. The physicochemical properties of these LABs such as ethanol content, fructooligosaccharide and inulin presence, volatile profile, colour, and amino acid profile were determined. All six LABs had sufficiently low ethanol content to be classified as LABs in New Zealand. Beers that were flavoured with NZYC were found to contain fructooligosaccharides and/or inulins, while beers which were not flavoured with NZYC were not. The LABs could not be differentiated in terms of their volatile profile; however, crude NZHDH was found to differ from crude NZYC, particularly due to the presence of compounds associated with “earthy” flavours. Significant differences were not consistently identified across all LAB samples in terms of colour; however, samples containing NZYC tended to have darker colour than samples which did not. The LABs could not be differentiated in terms of their amino acid profiles. Sensory evaluation of the LABs was also conducted using unstructured line scales, just-about-right (JAR) scales, and check-all-that-apply (CATA) questions. Fifty-three participants completed the sensory evaluation (thirty-one male and twenty-two female). For unstructured line scales, the LAB samples could not be differentiated but were overall somewhat liked by the participants. For JAR, three attributes were evaluated and a high proportion of participants indicated that sweetness, hoppiness, and bitterness were too low in the six LAB samples. Twenty-six terms were used for CATA, and seven of these terms reached statistical significance between the LAB samples. Results from physicochemical analysis supported the incorporation of NZYC into a functional LAB beverage; however, both physicochemical and sensory results suggest that reformulation would be required to achieve greater differentiation between the samples and increased overall liking.
In Chapter 6, the potential health benefits of NZHDH and NZYC were investigated with respect to inhibition of the formation of acrylamide in the Maillard reaction, anti-diabetic and anti-obesity activity, and anti-bacterial activity. Results suggest that NZHDH, NZYC, and phenolic compounds found in NZHDH and NZYC are unable to significantly reduce the formation of acrylamide at the tested concentrations. Phenolic extracts of NZHDH and NZYC were found to exhibit anti-diabetic activity, which was in agreement with literature concerning the major phenolic compounds identified in Chapters 3 and 4. Crude NZYC was found to exhibit anti-obesity activity, which was in agreement with literature concerning the major phenolic compounds identified in Chapter 4, while crude NZHDH exhibited negligible anti-obesity activity. Phenolic extracts of NZHDH and NZYC were unable to inhibit the growth of Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, or Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Overall, this thesis provides insightful information regarding (a) physicochemical information on NZHDH, NZYC, and novel LAB beverages formulated containing NZHDH and/or NZYC, (b) sensory information on the novel LAB beverages, and (c) some potential health benefits of NZHDH and NZYC. In terms of the practicality of the research, manufacturers and researchers now have basic physicochemical information about NZHDH and NZYC, some of which was not previously available in the literature, while NZYC has been highlighted due to its high FOS content and notable anti-obesity effects. Further experimentation should be considered such as reformulation of the LABs to improve functional properties, sample differentiation, and overall liking
The Production and Characterization of Spray Dried Tamarillo Powders
No full textThe objective of this research was to study the influence of spray drying conditions on the chemical and the physical characteristics of tamarillo powders. The spray drying process was conducted on a mini spray dryer with the use of different carriers that included maltodextrin (MD) and Gum Arabic (AG). The main objective was to determine the effects of drying conditions on colour, water activity, water solubility, hygroscopicity and, size distribution. Moreover, the effects of drying conditions on the total antioxidant activity and total phenolic compounds. The total solid content of tamarillo juices was approximately 9.6% and mixed with different carriers followed by homogenisation. The tamarillo pulp with 3% MD was spray dried at different inlet temperatures from 100 °C to 140 °C. The different feed solution comprised of control, 1.5% MD plus 1.5% AG, 2% MD plus 1% AG, 1% MD plus 2% AG, 3% MD and 3% AG were processed at 120 °C drying air temperature. Aspiration, flow rate and air flow were kept constant at 35 m3/h, 4.79g/min and at 0.6 m3/h respectively. After carrying out this experiment, the highest yield was produced at an inlet temperature of 120 °C. The properties of tamarillo powders produced were analyzed. A significant increase in L* value occurred at 140 °C, whereas the a* value showed a significant decrease. The b* value increased significantly at 130 °C compared to 100 °C and 110 °C. In terms of different carriers used, L* value and b* values were significantly higher than control sample. Water activity value of tamarillo powders was at its least (0.14) when dried at an inlet temperature of 130 °C, and with the incorporation of 1.5% maltodextrin and Gum Arabic. The solubility of tamarillo powders was significantly increased when spray dried using an inlet air temperature of 140 °C compared to 100 °C. Solubility also significantly increased with the use of 3% MD, 1% AG and 2% MD, and 1.5% MD and 1.5% AG, compared to control sample. tamarillo powders treated at different drying temperature and incorporated with different carriers had no significant changes on bulk density and hygroscopicity. The observed surface of tamarillo particles by scanning electron microscopy illustrated a higher degree of agglomeration and cracks in the control sample compared to powders produced using carriers (3% AG, 3% MD, and a 1.5:1.5 MD and AG mixture).
The antioxidant activity of hydrophilic compound for CUPRIC assay was significantly increased (p < 0.0001) as the inlet air temperature increased. A significant decrease was found with the hydrophobic antioxidant compound assay using FRAP when inlet air temperature increases. Additionally, freeze dried tamarillo powders had significantly higher antioxidant activities compared to spray dried samples using the CUPRIC, FRAP and Folin-Ciocalteu assays. There was a significant decrease in antioxidant activity with the CUPRIC assay for all tamarillo powder samples encapsulated with carriers compared to control. For FRAP analysis, the antioxidant activity of MD-containing sample was significantly higher than other samples treated with different carriers. In terms of the total phenolic compound, a significant decrease was observed with the use of 3% MD, and mixtures of 1.5% AG and 1.5% MD, 1% AG and 2% MD, and 2% MD and 1% AG, compared to control sample
The production and characterization of spray dried tamarillo powders
No full textThe objective of this research was to study the influence of spray drying conditions on the chemical and the physical characteristics of tamarillo powders. The spray drying process was conducted on a mini spray dryer with the use of different carriers that included maltodextrin (MD) and Gum Arabic (AG). The main objective was to determine the effects of drying conditions on colour, water activity, water solubility, hygroscopicity and, size distribution. Moreover, the effects of drying conditions on the total antioxidant activity and total phenolic compounds. The total solid content of tamarillo juices was approximately 9.6% and mixed with different carriers followed by homogenisation. The tamarillo pulp with 3% MD was spray dried at different inlet temperatures from 100 °C to 140 °C. The different feed solution comprised of control, 1.5% MD plus 1.5% AG, 2% MD plus 1% AG, 1% MD plus 2% AG, 3% MD and 3% AG were processed at 120 °C drying air temperature. Aspiration, flow rate and air flow were kept constant at 35 m3/h, 4.79g/min and at 0.6 m3/h respectively. After carrying out this experiment, the highest yield was produced at an inlet temperature of 120 °C. The properties of tamarillo powders produced were analyzed. A significant increase in L* value occurred at 140 °C, whereas the a* value showed a significant decrease. The b* value increased significantly at 130 °C compared to 100 °C and 110 °C. In terms of different carriers used, L* value and b* values were significantly higher than control sample. Water activity value of tamarillo powders was at its least (0.14) when dried at an inlet temperature of 130 °C, and with the incorporation of 1.5% maltodextrin and Gum Arabic. The solubility of tamarillo powders was significantly increased when spray dried using an inlet air temperature of 140 °C compared to 100 °C. Solubility also significantly increased with the use of 3% MD, 1% AG and 2% MD, and 1.5% MD and 1.5% AG, compared to control sample. tamarillo powders treated at different drying temperature and incorporated with different carriers had no significant changes on bulk density and hygroscopicity. The observed surface of tamarillo particles by scanning electron microscopy illustrated a higher degree of agglomeration and cracks in the control sample compared to powders produced using carriers (3% AG, 3% MD, and a 1.5:1.5 MD and AG mixture).
The antioxidant activity of hydrophilic compound for CUPRIC assay was significantly increased (p < 0.0001) as the inlet air temperature increased. A significant decrease was found with the hydrophobic antioxidant compound assay using FRAP when inlet air temperature increases. Additionally, freeze dried tamarillo powders had significantly higher antioxidant activities compared to spray dried samples using the CUPRIC, FRAP and Folin-Ciocalteu assays. There was a significant decrease in antioxidant activity with the CUPRIC assay for all tamarillo powder samples encapsulated with carriers compared to control. For FRAP analysis, the antioxidant activity of MD-containing sample was significantly higher than other samples treated with different carriers. In terms of the total phenolic compound, a significant decrease was observed with the use of 3% MD, and mixtures of 1.5% AG and 1.5% MD, 1% AG and 2% MD, and 2% MD and 1% AG, compared to control sample
The Effect of Distillation Conditions and Molasses Concentration on the Volatile Compounds of Unaged Rum
No full textCaribbean rums are made from blackstrap molasses and during the production process, four critical stages can affect the flavor of rum. These four stages include fermentation, distillation, aging, and blending. During the distillation process, a copper alembic pot is used. The rum distillate is collected in three fractions or ’cuts‘; heads, hearts, and tails. Major compounds in the head fraction contain ethanol, ethyl acetate, and acetaldehyde, the latter being undesirable at high concentration. The heart fraction is generally of commercial value because it contains ethanol, esters and fusel alcohols that gives the rum the unique aroma. The tail fraction usually contains a high concentration of fatty acids that give off a rancid and unpleasant odor. In industry, an experienced distiller will use a sensorial approach (taste and smell) to determine these cuts. To minimize such a subjective approach, this study proposed to use gas chromatography fitted with a flame ionization detector to monitor specific compounds (congeners) in the rum distillate. By understanding the congener profiles, it is possible to determine when to make appropriate cuts objectively. The head fraction was determined to be the first 400ml of the total rum distillate of 3000ml. At this point, the concentration of acetaldehyde starts to drop below the flavor threshold of 200 mg/L. Propionic acid, owing to its high boiling point, are collected at the later stage of distillation as the ‘tails’ fraction. According to the findings from this study, the tail cut is made at 2600 ml of distillate collected as the concentration of propionic acid starts rising rapidly above the odor threshold of 60 mg/L. High concentration of propionic acid in the rum distillate would give a sweaty-like and rancid odor. In addition, it was found that rum that has been distilled twice had higher purity in ethanol and lower concentration of undesirable congeners like acetaldehyde and propionic acid. However, the desirable ethyl ester congeners were also removed during after the double distillation process.
During the fermentation stage, a commercial rum yeast from a strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae was used to ferment a mixture of varying molasses and dextrose concentration in the rum must (solution before fermentation). It was found that the raw material also affected the congeners of the distilled rum. Using the solid phase microextraction (SPME) with GC-MS technique, it was found that 1-butanol 3 methyl-acetate, octanoic acid ethyl-ester, acetic acid 2-phenylethyl ester, decanoic acid ethyl ester, octanoic acid ethyl ester, 3-methylbutyl ester, dodecanoic acid ethyl ester were the most abundant esters in rum distillate. However, there was no obvious trend to correlate molasses concentration in the must to the ester profiles of rum. The results from this study also showed that the amino acids in the blackstrap molasses did not have any impact on the concentration of esters in the final rum distillate
Variations on the Author
Full text link“Variations on the Author” discusses two of Eduardo Coutinho’s recent films (Um Dia na Vida, from 2010, and Últimas Conversas, posthumously released in 2015) and their contribution to the general question of documentary authorship. The director’s filmography is characterized by a consistent yet self-effacing form of authorial self-inscription: Coutinho often features as an interviewer that rather than express opinions propels discourses; an interviewer that is good at listening. This mode of self-inscription characterizes him as an author who is not expressive but who is nonetheless markedly present on the screen. In Um Dia na Vida, however, Coutinho is completely absent form the image, while Últimas Conversas, on the contrary, includes a confessional prologue that moves the director from the margins to the center of his films. This article examines the ways in which these works stand out in the filmography of a director who offers new insights into the notion of cinematic authorship
Understanding the Marketability of Korean Rice Wine (Makgeolli) in New Zealand Using Sensory and Physicochemical Methods
No full textPhysicochemical and sensory information is critical to understanding the physical properties of food products. When this information is not available, then it would be difficult to establish a market opportunity for the food product as manufacturers and researchers cannot predict whether the food product will be accepted or rejected from the marketplace. In this thesis, physicochemical principles and sensory evaluations were used to understand the properties of makgeolli and their different processing methods. Makgeolli is a traditional rice alcoholic beverage that originated in Korea. Four methods of preparing makgeolli were investigated in this thesis, as their material e.g., fermentation starter (nuruk, traditional Korean fermentation starter), rice (either glutinous rice and/or non-glutinous rice) and time of fermentation varied. Interestingly, makgeolli uses simultaneous saccharification and fermentation for the brewing process meaning starch hydrolysis and alcoholic fermentation occur concurrently within the same vessel. The four methods of producing makgeolli include (1) single-stage simultaneous saccharification and fermentation of glutinous rice with nuruk – a Korean starter culture (1SF-N), single-stage fermentation with nuruk and yeast (1SF-YN), two-stage fermentation (2SF) and three-stage fermentation (3SF).
Study 1, physicochemical properties such as alcohol content, pH, colour, mineral content, proximate composition, antioxidant activity, total phenolic content, sugar, free amino acid, and organic acid profile were used to examine the four different makgeolli processing methods. Results indicate 1SF-N makgeolli sample had the highest alcohol, crude protein, antioxidant activity, total phenolic and free amino acids content while the 2SF makgeolli sample had the highest concentration of glucose and maltose. In addition to chemical analysis, sensory evaluation using polarised projective mapping (PPM) with sweetness (using sucrose), sourness (using citric acid), and bitterness (using quinine) as references or ‘poles’ that participants can compare the makgeolli samples against when placing the makgeolli samples on the A3 piece of paper. Although 1SF-N makgeolli sample had the most physicochemical features such as high concentrations of antioxidants, total phenolic content and free amino acids, it was the least liked makgeolli sample. In comparison, 2SF makgeolli sample was the most overall liked likely due to the higher sugar content compared to the other makgeolli samples.
In study 2, chemical analysis using solid-phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (SPME-GC-MS) to identify the different volatile compounds present in the four makgeolli samples. In total, 45 volatile compounds were identified and the majority of compounds found of interest in the makgeolli samples were esters (25 compounds) and alcohol (10 compounds). Principle component analysis (PCA) was employed to determine the interactions of volatile compounds in the makgeolli samples. In terms of volatile compounds that are well represented in the PCA graph, limonene (citrus-like flavour), ethyl pentanoate, and hexanal (green/grass-like flavour) contributed the most for Dimension 1. For Dimension 2 on the PCA graph, 2-ethoxy-2-methyl-propane, 2-methyl-1-propanol, and isobutyl acetate were the three highest volatile compounds that contributed the most. Two sensory experiments were carried out simultaneously using Check-All-That-Apply (CATA) and Just-About-Right (JAR) were also included in this study. One hundred and twenty-nine participants (n = 68 female participants) took part in the study. Twenty terms were used for CATA, and among the 20 terms, 14 terms reached statistical significance between the four makgeolli samples. For JAR, seven attributes were evaluated and a high proportion of participants indicated that sourness was too much in three of the four makgeolli samples.
In study 3, product categorisation of makgeolli was investigated and characterised among beer and wine samples. Two separate sensory studies were conducted with projective mapping with ultra-flash profiling (PM with UFP) completed first then polarised sensory positioning (PSP). A collective total of 159 participants took part in the study with 68 participants in PM with UFP and 91 in PSP. Previous research indicates that makgeolli shared similar traits to semi-sweet white or rose wine, however, results from both sensory experiments indicate makgeolli had unique sensory traits and attributes, therefore, makgeolli should be categorised or marketed differently.
In study 4, two sensory experiments were conducted to understand how the environment affects the participant’s attitudes, behaviour, and perception while consuming makgeolli in New Zealand. Experiment 1 (n = 60) was carried out in a laboratory setting using the evoked context method to simulate a context scenario while Experiment 2 (n = 113) was carried out in physical environments including a laboratory, an Asian restaurant, and participant’s home. Both experiments indicate that context appropriateness was an important factor while consuming the makgeolli beverage and different context scenarios or physical environments did not change participant’s overall liking of makgeolli. In summary, context appropriateness may be an important factor to consider in the consumer’s decision-making process and should be considered as part of hedonic testing or acceptance testing on food products.
Overall, this thesis provides insightful information regarding to physicochemical and sensory information on the different processing methods of makgeolli. In terms of the practicality of the research, manufacturers and researchers have basic physicochemical information about the different makgeolli samples. Further experimentation should be considered such as shelf-life and packaging, and additional research on microbial diversity and growth would be beneficial. For sensory analysis and evaluation, makgeolli was examined in different environments which provides a comprehensive view into how makgeolli is perceived among participants (e.g., home, laboratory, and restaurant environments). Considering the current economic environment and consumer behaviour changes, large-scale production and commercialisation of makgeolli in New Zealand is not advisable
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