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A Study of Yehshih Tienli 業食佃力
No full textIn the first half of the Ming period there was a practice concerning the water control in the Chiangnan Delta, which I have conceptualized as the "t'ient'ou-chih 田頭制" elsewhere. The practice was based on the existence of managerial landlords who were resident in rural areas, i.e. "hsiangchutichu 郷居地主". In this article the author, first, indicates some new source materials, pointing out that creeks were sometimes owned by those landlords legally, that there had existed the practice of t'ient'ou-chih in the Sung period, and that those landlords had taken responsibility for collective pumping for drainage (tap'engch'e 大輣車). From the middle of the sixteenth century and on, those managerial landlords began to go bankrupt because of the development of the monetary economy and the evolution of simple commodity production in this region. The t'ientou-chih broke down rapidly, and, therefore, new practices had to be set up by the local authorities such as county magistrates, prefects and Grand Coordinators. The most typical reform was carried out by Keng Chu 耿橘, the Magistrate of C'hangshu 常熟 County at the beginning of the seventeenth century. His new regulations for water control consisted mainly of three practices, namely, "chaot'ienp'aii 照田派役", restriction of "yumien 優免"and "yehshih tienli 業食佃力". The yehshih tienli meant that the tenants should provide actual labor on behalf of gentry landlords who were mostly residing in the cities, and that the landlords should compensate the tenants for their services. Magistrate Keng prescribed that the landlords should supply tenants with rice or silver directly, but later it became a general tendency that tenants deducted the compensation from the rent due to their landlords. The term "yehshih tienli" also existed in the Sung period, and some scholars claim that the practice in the late Ming is a continuation of the one in the Sung period. But the author has a different view. This term does not appear in source materials written before the early sixteenth century in the Ming period. And this new practice, together with the other two practices, was meant to counteract the resistance of gentry landlords. The reformers such as Keng Chu made strenuous efforts to put the new regulations into practice. There are two features which distinguish the yehshih tienli of the Ming period from that of the Sung period, i.e. : i) The practice was introduced by local offcials for the relaxation of class antagonism and for the security of water control works, so it had the character of corvee labor which was levied by the Government. ii) It was against the evolution of simple commodity production infiltrating down to the handicraft produced by tenants that the new practice had to be introduced. The water control works such as the dredging of creeks, the repairing of dikes and the collective pumping for drainage encroached upon the tenants' precious time spent for handicraft work, which was indispensable for the maintenance of their families. This loss had to be made up for. These features, especially the second one, were the major differences between the practice in the late Ming and that in the Sung period
On the Operation of Jun-tian jun-yi 均田均役
Get PDFThe jun-tian jun-yi fa 均田均役法 went into effect in the prefectures of Jia-xing 嘉興 and Fu-zhou 福州 in the late Ming period as a reform of the li-jia zheng-yi 里甲正役 system. The imposition of zheng-yi was based on acreage, and the privilege from labor service (you-mian 優免) accorded to the gentry was reduced. On account of the latter provision the gentry objected to the enforcement (of the law and obstructed it in many ways, sometimes by violence. 0n the other hand, those who welcomed the enforcement of the reform most warmly were small landowners who had no such pfivileges, including the class of sheng-yuan 生員. Many of the reforms stemmed from proposals made by this class. At times they mobilized large numbers of people in demonstrations. These movements on the part of the class of small landowners are associated with the intensification of class confrontation, the existence of which in this period has already been pointed out. In the face of this crisis of authority on the part of the gentry and the imperial state, "righteous" gentry, led by the Dong-lin clique 東林黨 and others, attempted to liquidate the crisis by co-opting small landowners into the establishment on the basis of certain concessions. One can observe such a political manoeuvre in the enforcement of Jun-tian jun-yi
COMMUNAL RELIGION IN JIANGNAN DELTA RURAL VILLAGES IN LATE IMPERIAL CHINA
No full textThis article addresses the broad question of the sense of community in traditional Chinese villages, through consideration of popular cults found throughout the most highly developed region in Late Imperial China: the Jiangnan Delta. A key clue is a large-scale tenant-farmer revolt in Zhaowen County in 1846. When the uprising was suppressed, not only were twenty human ringleaders executed, but images of four local gods from village temples, who were believed to have sanctioned the rebellion, were also seized by the authorities and exposed for one year at the gates of the Zhaowen County City God temple. All four had three characteristics in common: (1) they were anthropomorphic, with human names; (2) they had living descendants of the same surname; (3) all were associated with stories involving miraculous protection of tax grain transport to the North. The descendants of these gods, all possession-type spirit mediums, or shamans, based in the villages, created the gods in response to the needs of their clients, large-scale landlords who bore responsibility for sea transport of tax grain to the North. In the mid-sixteenth century, fundamental socio-economic changes took place in the Jiangnan Delta. The landlords disappeared from the villages, leaving only the farmers, who were turning to cottage industries for cash to supplement inadequate food crop yields. The spirit mediums responded to the changes and modified their gods for a new set of clients, resulting in the survival of these cults down to the present day.</jats:p
Going Beyond Counting First Authors in Author Co-citation Analysis
Get PDFThe present study examines one of the fundamental aspects of author co-citation analysis (ACA) - the way co-citation
counts are defined. Co-citation counting provides the data on which all subsequent statistical analyses and mappings
are based, and we compare ACA results based on two different types of co-citation counting - the traditional type that
only counts the first one among a cited work's authors on the one hand and a non-traditional type that takes into
account the first 5 authors of a cited work on the other hand. Results indicate that the picture produced through this non-traditional author co-citation counting contains more coherent author groups and is therefore considerably clearer. However, this picture represents fewer specialties in the research field being studied than that produced through the traditional first-author co-citation counting when the same number of top-ranked authors is selected and analyzed. Reasons for these effects are discussed
Variations on the Author
Get PDF“Variations on the Author” discusses two of Eduardo Coutinho’s recent films (Um Dia na Vida, from 2010, and Últimas Conversas, posthumously released in 2015) and their contribution to the general question of documentary authorship. The director’s filmography is characterized by a consistent yet self-effacing form of authorial self-inscription: Coutinho often features as an interviewer that rather than express opinions propels discourses; an interviewer that is good at listening. This mode of self-inscription characterizes him as an author who is not expressive but who is nonetheless markedly present on the screen. In Um Dia na Vida, however, Coutinho is completely absent form the image, while Últimas Conversas, on the contrary, includes a confessional prologue that moves the director from the margins to the center of his films. This article examines the ways in which these works stand out in the filmography of a director who offers new insights into the notion of cinematic authorship
Appropriate Similarity Measures for Author Cocitation Analysis
Get PDFWe provide a number of new insights into the methodological discussion about author cocitation analysis. We first argue that the use of the Pearson correlation for measuring the similarity between authors’ cocitation profiles is not very satisfactory. We then discuss what kind of similarity measures may be used as an alternative to the Pearson correlation. We consider three similarity measures in particular. One is the well-known cosine. The other two similarity measures have not been used before in the bibliometric literature. Finally, we show by means of an example that our findings have a high practical relevance.information science;Pearson correlation;cosine;similarity measure;author cocitation analysis
The City-god Temples (ch'eng-huang-miao) of Chiangnan in the Ming and Ch'ing Dynasties
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