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Interessi pubblici e interessi collettivi nella contrattazione collettiva dei dipendenti pubblici
No full textIl tema che è stato sviluppato nel triennio di dottorato attiene a un punto decisivo, e ciononostante tuttora poco indagato, della contrattualizzazione dei rapporti di lavoro pubblico.
Invero, nello stabilire che «i rapporti individuali di lavoro [alle dipendenze delle pubbliche amministrazioni] sono regolati contrattualmente», l'art. 2, co. 3, d.lgs. n. 29/1993 (e oggi l'art. 2, co. 3, d. lgs. n. 165/2001) ha posto la questione della qualificazione giuridica dell'interesse del creditore della prestazione.
Nello specifico, la ricerca muove dall’analisi dell’art. 97 co. 2 Cost. che – a causa della connessione esistente nel settore pubblico tra i profili di disciplina attinenti all’organizzazione delle Pubbliche amministrazioni e i profili relativi, invece, all’attività di gestione dei rapporti di lavoro – pone una delicata questione giuridica in ordine al rapporto fra i principi dell’imparzialità e del buon andamento dell’organizzazione amministrativa e il principio di libertà di contrattazione collettiva sancito dall’art. 39 co. 1 Cost.
L’obiettivo della ricerca, pertanto, è stato quello di appurare se l’attività di contrattazione delle Pubbliche amministrazioni sia funzionalizzata o meno alla realizzazione degli interessi pubblici ex art. 97 Cost.
In questa prospettiva, nel primo capitolo della tesi – dopo aver esaminato l’evoluzione dell’assetto giuridico del rapporto di lavoro pubblico dalle origini fino alla contrattualizzazione degli anni Novanta – ci si è soffermati sul rapporto tra il contratto individuale di lavoro pubblico e gli interessi pubblici ex art. 97 Cost. al fine di accertare se il principio di buon andamento dell’organizzazione amministrativa sia idoneo ad incidere sulla causa del contratto stipulato tra la Pubblica amministrazione e il dipendente pubblico oppure se il rapporto fra le parti si fondi, parimenti a quanto accade nel settore privato, sullo scambio fra prestazione lavorativa e controprestazione retributiva.
Ebbene, la ricerca ha consentito di appurare come, fra le varie interpretazioni proposte del problema in esame, maggiormente condivisibile – perché più coerente con l’assetto normativo conseguente alla contrattualizzazione e con alcune ricostruzioni proposte in tema di rapporto fra organizzazione e contratto di lavoro nell’ambito del settore privato – è risultato l’orientamento dottrinale che ha letto il problema in esame in chiave “contrattualistica”.
Invero, giova rammentare che, per effetto dell’art. 5 d.lgs. n. 165/2001, la Pubblica amministrazione sia stata legalmente parificata al datore di lavoro privato: essa, infatti, nella gestione dei rapporti di lavoro agisce con le «capacità e i poteri» propri di quest’ultimo.
Ne deriva che, se si condivide la tesi che ritiene che nel settore privato la gestione dei rapporti di lavoro da parte del datore di lavoro sia strumentale alla realizzazione dello scopo lucrativo, anche nel lavoro pubblico, secondo l’insegnamento di Massimo Severo Giannini, la Pubblica amministrazione quando assume personale deve essere considerata portatrice di un interesse strumentale alla cura degli scopi pubblici di cui la stessa è affidataria.
Ora, questo interesse strumentale è nei fatti un interesse “organizzatorio” e, dunque, proprio della Pubblica amministrazione e neutro dal punto di vista della qualificazione giuridica. Ne deriva che – così come nel lavoro privato lo scopo lucrativo non incide sulla causa del contratto di
lavoro – allo stesso modo, nel settore pubblico, questo interesse è causalmente irrilevante nel rapporto fra la Pubblica amministrazione e il dipendente pubblico.
Ciò porta a concludere, dunque, che il contratto individuale di lavoro pubblico non sia funzionalizzato agli interessi pubblici ex art. 97 Cost. ma che, al pari del contratto di lavoro privato, sia fondato su un mero scambio fra lavoro e retribuzione ex art. 2094 c.c.
Una volta chiarito che l’attività di contrattazione individuale della Pubblica amministrazione non è funzionalizzata a realizzare gli interessi pubblici ex art. 97 Cost., nel secondo capitolo ci si è soffermati su un’ulteriore questione giuridica: ossia, sull’incidenza degli interessi al buon andamento e all’imparzialità dell’organizzazione amministrativa sul sistema di contrattazione collettiva del settore pubblico.
La struttura della contrattazione collettiva del lavoro pubblico, infatti, pur venendo rimessa all’autonomia degli agenti negoziali, risente di una profonda “invadenza” della fonte legislativa: quest’ultima, infatti, predetermina i soggetti, i livelli e le procedure in base alle quali la negoziazione collettiva dovrà svolgersi.
Ciò si verifica poiché il datore di lavoro pubblico – a differenza del datore di lavoro privato che utilizza denaro proprio al fine di perseguire un mero scopo lucrativo – amministra denaro pubblico in vista di mutevoli finalità di interesse pubblico.
Ne deriva che l’attività del datore di lavoro pubblico, nella fase propedeutica alla stipulazione del contratto, risulta assoggettata a vincoli legali funzionali alla realizzazione degli interessi pubblici ex art. 97 Cost.
Ecco perché – al fine di stabilire se il contratto collettivo è funzionalizzato o meno a realizzare gli interessi pubblici ex art. 97 co. 2 Cost – nel terzo capitolo oggetto di analisi è stato il grado di incidenza del carattere eteronomo del sistema di contrattazione collettiva sulla natura e sulla qualificazione giuridica del contratto collettivo del lavoro pubblico.
Ora, se si conviene che la contrattualizzazione del rapporto di pubblico impiego – riconducendo il datore di lavoro pubblico alla posizione di parte nel rapporto con i propri dipendenti – abbia comportato l’applicazione a quest’ultimo della disciplina del lavoro subordinato nell’impresa e, dunque, la qualificazione del contratto individuale come contratto di scambio fra prestazione di lavoro e retribuzione ex art. 2094 c.c., dovrà parimenti convenirsi che il potere contrattuale delle parti non possa essere considerato come funzionalizzato a realizzare i principi di imparzialità e buon andamento ex art. 97 Cost. ma, al contrario, come manifestazione originaria del principio di libertà sindacale ex art. 39 co. 1.
Ciononostante, la Pubblica amministrazione resta un soggetto vincolato dall’ordinamento a perseguire interessi pubblici: l’art. 97 co. 2 Cost., dunque, ha comunque un ruolo fondamentale nell’attività di contrattazione collettiva del datore di lavoro pubblico.
Essa, infatti, in quanto gravata da penetranti vincoli e limitazioni, va considerata come finalizzata alla cura di interessi pubblici (art. 2 co. 1 L. n. 421/1992; art. 1, co. 1 d.lgs. n. 29/1993) da parte di soggetti legalmente predeterminati (Aran, dirigenza e organi delle singole Pubbliche amministrazioni). Di conseguenza, «mentre per il rapporto individuale di lavoro le amministrazioni agiscono ex art. 4, c. 2, D.lgs. n. 29/1993 con i poteri e le capacità del privato datore di lavoro, onde ogni funzionalizzazione deve ritenersi esclusa, nel conflitto di interessi a livello collettivo riemergono
i vincoli costituzionali gravanti sulla pubblica amministrazione, che al contempo ne legittimano l’esistenza e ne diversificano il regime giuridico di attività da quello dell’impresa privata».
Ciò significa che l’art. 1 d.lgs. n. 165/2001, laddove prevede che l’organizzazione degli uffici e i rapporti di lavoro siano coerenti con l’art. 97 Cost., impone un vincolo di scopo in capo alla Pubblica amministrazione in riferimento sia all’attività organizzativa sia all’attività di contrattazione collettiva, anche se, in quest’ultimo caso, limitatamente al processo di formazione della volontà del datore di lavoro pubblico.
Analogo rilievo sotto tale profilo assume altresì l’art. 81 Cost. che – a seguito della riforma costituzionale del 2012 – impone allo Stato di garantire «l’equilibrio tra le entrate e le spese del proprio bilancio, tenendo conto delle fasi avverse e delle fasi favorevoli del ciclo economico».
Ebbene, entro questi termini, appare ragionevole sostenere che nel lavoro pubblico vi sia una asimmetria del fondamento costituzionale dell’autonomia collettiva che è riconducibile, dal lato dei lavoratori pubblici all’art. 39 co. 1 Cost., mentre, dal lato delle Pubbliche amministrazioni, all’art. 97 Cost.
Sulla base delle predette considerazioni, è stato possibile concludere, dunque, come la contrattazione collettiva del lavoro pubblico – al pari del contratto individuale stipulato fra Pubblica amministrazione e dipendente pubblico – non possa essere considerata funzionalizzata a realizzare gli interessi pubblici ex art. 97 co. 2 Cost., se non limitatamente al processo di formazione della volontà del datore di lavoro pubblico.The subject that was analysed in the thesis work relates to a decisive, and yet still little investigated, profile of the contractualisation of public employment relations.
Indeed, in establishing that «individual employment relationships [with public administrations] are regulated by contract», Article 2(3) of Legislative Decree No. 29/1993 (and now Article 2(3) of Legislative Decree No. 165/2001) posed the question of the legal qualification of the interest of the performance creditor.
Specifically, the research starts from the analysis of Article 97, para. 2 of the italian Constitution, which – due to the connection existing in the public sector between the regulatory profiles pertaining to the organisation of public administrations and the profiles relating, instead, to the management of labour relations – poses a delicate legal question concerning the relationship between the principles of impartiality and good performance of the administrative organisation and the principle of freedom of collective bargaining enshrined in Article 39, para. 1 of the italian Constitution.
The aim of the research, therefore, was to ascertain whether the collective bargaining activity of the public administration is functional to the realisation of public interests referred to in Article 97 of the Constitution.
With this in mind, the first chapter of the thesis focused on the relationship between the individual public employment contract and the public interests referred to Article 97 of the Constitution in order to ascertain whether the principle of good performance of the administrative organisation is capable of affecting the cause of the contract stipulated between the public administration and the public employee, or whether the relationship between the parties is based, as in the private sector, on the exchange between work performance and remuneration.
Well, the research made it possible to ascertain how, among the various interpretations proposed of the problem in question, the most acceptable – because it is more consistent with the regulatory framework following contractualisation and with certain reconstructions proposed on the subject of the relationship between organisation and employment contract in the private sector – was the doctrinal orientation that read the problem in question in a “contractualist” key.
Indeed, it should be recalled that, by virtue of Article 5 of Legislative Decree No. 165/2001, the public administration has been legally equated with the private employer.
It follows that, if one agrees with the thesis that holds that in the private sector the management of labour relations by the employer is instrumental to the realisation of the lucrative purpose, even in public employment, according to the teaching of Massimo Severo Giannini, when the Public Administration hires personnel it must be considered the bearer of an instrumental interest in the care of the public purposes for which it is entrusted. Now, this instrumental interest is in fact an “organisational” interest and, therefore, proper to the Public Administration and neutral from the point of view of legal qualification. It follows that – just as in private employment the profit motive does not affect the cause of the employment contract – in the same way, in the public sector, this interest is causally irrelevant in the relationship between the public administration and the public employee.
This leads to the conclusion, therefore, that the individual public employment contract is not functionalised in the public interest pursuant to Article 97 of the Constitution but, like the private employment contract, is based on a mere exchange between work and remuneration pursuant to Article 2094 of the Civil Code.
Once it had been clarified that the public administration's individual bargaining activity does not function to realise public interests pursuant to Article 97 of the Constitution, the second chapter focused on a further legal issue: that is, on the impact of the interests of good performance and impartiality of the administrative organisation on the system of collective bargaining in the public sector.
The structure of collective bargaining in public employment, in fact, although it is left to the autonomy of the bargaining agents, suffers from a profound “intrusiveness” of the legislative source: the latter, in fact, predetermines the subjects, levels and procedures on the basis of which collective bargaining must take place.
This occurs because the public employer – unlike the private employer that uses its own money to pursue a mere profit motive – administers public money in view of public interest goals.
It follows that the activity of the public employer, in the phase preparatory to the stipulation of the contract, is subject to legal constraints functional to the realisation of public interests pursuant to Article 97 of the Constitution.
This is why – in order to establish whether or not the collective agreement is functionalised to realise the public interests pursuant to Article 97, para. 2 of the Constitution – the third chapter analysed the degree to which the heteronomous nature of the collective bargaining system affects the nature and legal qualification of the public employment collective agreement.
Now, if it is agreed that the contractualisation of the public employment relationship – leading the public employer to the position of party in the relationship with its employees – has entailed the application to the latter of the discipline of subordinate employment in the enterprise and, therefore, the qualification of the individual contract as a contract of exchange between work performance and remuneration pursuant to Article 2094 of the Civil Code, it must likewise be agreed that the parties' bargaining power cannot be considered as functional to realising the principles of impartiality and good performance pursuant to Article 97 of the Constitution but, on the contrary, as the original manifestation of the principle of trade union freedom pursuant to Article 39.
Nevertheless, the public administration remains a subject bound by the law to pursue public interests: Article 97 para. 2 of the Constitution, therefore, plays a fundamental role in the collective bargaining activity of the public employer.
In fact, insofar as it is encumbered by penetrating constraints and limitations, it is to be considered as aimed at the pursuit of public interests (Article 2, para. 1 of Law No. 421/1992; Article 1, para. 1 of Legislative Decree No. 29/1993) by legally predetermined subjects (Aran, management and bodies of the individual public administrations). This means that Article 1 of Legislative Decree No. 165/2001, where it provides that the organisation of offices and labour relations must be consistent with Article 97 of the Constitution, imposes a constraint of purpose on the public administration with reference both to organisational activity and to collective bargaining activity, albeit, in the latter case, limited to the process of forming the will of the public employer.
Equally important in this respect is Article 81 of the Constitution, which - following the 2012 constitutional reform - requires the State to ensure «the balance between its revenue and expenditure, taking into account both adverse and favourable phases of the economic cycle».
Well, within these terms, it seems reasonable to argue that in public employment there is an asymmetry of the constitutional basis of collective autonomy, which can be traced, on the side of public workers, to Article 39 co. 1 of the Italian Constitution, while, on the side of public administrations, to Article 97 of the Italian Constitution.
On the basis of the aforementioned considerations, it was possible to conclude, therefore, that collective bargaining in public employment – like the individual contract entered into between public administration and public employee – cannot be considered functional to realise the public interests pursuant to Article 97, para. 2 of the Constitution, if not limited to the process of forming the will of the public employer
Evolutionary conserved pathway of the innate immune response after a viral insult in Paracentrotus lividus sea urchin
No full textDespite the apparent simplicity of the body organization of echinoderms, their immune system is competent to perform a complex innate immune response, which is far from being well understood. The echinoderms represent the most advanced invertebrates that form a bridge with the primitive chordates. In fact, they possess numerous receptors and effectors that are used to obtain a fast immune response. After an infection, the humoral and cellular immune response determines a network in which the main protagonists are membrane and endosomal receptors. The recognition of nonself molecules by specific membrane receptors triggers the immune response, stimulating consecutive intracellular events. We have previously shown how the polyinosinic–polycytidylic acid (polyI:C) that mimics a viral infection is able to induce an immune response in the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus immune cells. It activates a specific membrane receptor belonging to the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family. Here, we show the activated expression pattern of some genes involved in the downstream cascade of TLR signalling pathway, such as Pl-Tbk and Pl-Irf, whose partial sequence was isolated from P. lividus immune cells. Their mRNA expression increases consequentially to the polyI:C stimulation and in a temporal way. In addition, we analysed the expression of Pl-NF-kB and we found that its upregulation was time-dependent, preceding Pl-Tbk and Pl-Irf increase. Protein analysis showed that also some cytokine (TNF-α and IL-1α) expression increased after polyI:C insult. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to discover the molecular mechanisms of the innate defence strategies, similarly to vertebrates, implemented by the sea urchins in order to cope with viral infection challenge
Going Beyond Counting First Authors in Author Co-citation Analysis
Full text linkThe present study examines one of the fundamental aspects of author co-citation analysis (ACA) - the way co-citation
counts are defined. Co-citation counting provides the data on which all subsequent statistical analyses and mappings
are based, and we compare ACA results based on two different types of co-citation counting - the traditional type that
only counts the first one among a cited work's authors on the one hand and a non-traditional type that takes into
account the first 5 authors of a cited work on the other hand. Results indicate that the picture produced through this non-traditional author co-citation counting contains more coherent author groups and is therefore considerably clearer. However, this picture represents fewer specialties in the research field being studied than that produced through the traditional first-author co-citation counting when the same number of top-ranked authors is selected and analyzed. Reasons for these effects are discussed
Variations on the Author
Full text link“Variations on the Author” discusses two of Eduardo Coutinho’s recent films (Um Dia na Vida, from 2010, and Últimas Conversas, posthumously released in 2015) and their contribution to the general question of documentary authorship. The director’s filmography is characterized by a consistent yet self-effacing form of authorial self-inscription: Coutinho often features as an interviewer that rather than express opinions propels discourses; an interviewer that is good at listening. This mode of self-inscription characterizes him as an author who is not expressive but who is nonetheless markedly present on the screen. In Um Dia na Vida, however, Coutinho is completely absent form the image, while Últimas Conversas, on the contrary, includes a confessional prologue that moves the director from the margins to the center of his films. This article examines the ways in which these works stand out in the filmography of a director who offers new insights into the notion of cinematic authorship
Appropriate Similarity Measures for Author Cocitation Analysis
Full text linkWe provide a number of new insights into the methodological discussion about author cocitation analysis. We first argue that the use of the Pearson correlation for measuring the similarity between authors’ cocitation profiles is not very satisfactory. We then discuss what kind of similarity measures may be used as an alternative to the Pearson correlation. We consider three similarity measures in particular. One is the well-known cosine. The other two similarity measures have not been used before in the bibliometric literature. Finally, we show by means of an example that our findings have a high practical relevance.information science;Pearson correlation;cosine;similarity measure;author cocitation analysis
Nickel toxicity in P. lividus embryos: Dose dependent effects and gene expression analysis
No full textMany industrial activities release Nickel (Ni) in the environment with harmful effects for terrestrial and marine organisms. Despite many studies on the mechanisms of Ni toxicity are available, the understanding about its toxic effects on marine organisms is more limited. We used Paracentrotus lividus as a model to analyze the effects on the stress pathways in embryos continuously exposed to different Ni doses, ranging from 0.03 to 0.5 mM. We deeply examined the altered embryonic morphologies at 24 and 48 h after Ni exposure. Some different phenotypes have been classified, showing alterations at the expenses of the dorso-ventral axis as well as the skeleton and/or the pigment cells. At the lowest dose used, Ni mainly induced a multi-spicule phenotype observed at 24 h after treatment. On the contrary, at the highest dose of Ni (0.5 mM), 90% of embryos showed no skeleton and no pigment cells. Therefore, we focused on this dose to study protein and gene expression patterns at 24 and 48 h after exposure. Among the proteins analyzed, i.e. p38MAPK, Grp78 and Mn-SOD, only p38MAPK was induced by Ni treatment. Moreover, we analyzed the mRNA profiles of a pool of genes that are involved in stress response and in development mechanisms, i.e. the transcription factors Pl-NFkB and Pl-FOXO; a marker of DNA repair, Pl-XPB/ERCC3; a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), Pl-p38; an ER stress gene, Pl-grp78; an adapter protein, Pl-14-3-3ε; two markers of pigment cells, Pl-PKS1 and Pl-gcm. The spatial expression of mesenchymal marker genes has been evaluated in Ni-treated embryos at both 24 and 48 h after exposure. Our results indicated that Ni acts at several levels in P. lividus sea urchin, by affecting embryo development, influencing the embryonic immune response and activating stress response pathways to counteract the suffered injury and to promote embryos surviving
Dispelling the Myths Behind First-author Citation Counts
Full text linkWe conducted a full-scale evaluative citation analysis study of scholars in the XML research field to explore just how different from each other author rankings resulting from different citation counting methods actually are, and to demonstrate the capability of emerging data and tools on the Web in supporting more realistic citation counting methods. Our results contest some common arguments for the continued
use of first-author citation counts in the evaluation of scholars, such as high correlations between author rankings by first-author citation counts and other citation
counting methods, and high costs of using more realistic citation counting methods that are not well-supported by the ISI databases. It is argued that increasingly available digital full text research papers make it possible for citation analysis studies to go beyond what the ISI databases have directly supported and to employ more
sophisticated methods
koamabayili/VECTRON-author-checklist: VECTRON author checklist
No full textWe have done our best to complete the author checklist relating to the use of animals in the hut study. Note that the objective for the hut study was to evaluate the IRS treatment applications for residual efficacy against Anopheles mosquitoes, including the local An. coluzzii mosquito population. Cows were only used to attract mosquitoes into the huts and no tests were carried out directly on the cows. The author checklist is intended for use with studies where experiments are carried out on animals, which is why we have had such difficulty in completing this for the hut study, as many of the questions do not relate to how the cows were used
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