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Functionalisation of aromatic C-H bonds with dicarbene transition metal catalysts
Get PDFThe present research project concerns the catalytic application of transition metal dicarbene complexes in aromatic C-H bond functionalisation/activation reactions.
The efficiency of this kind of complexes has been mainly examined in the hydroarylation of alkynes (Fujiwara reaction), which involves the addition of arenes to a wide range of internal and terminal alkynes. It was already known that this reaction is catalysed by simple palladium(II) compounds, such as Pd(OAc)2, in a trifluoroacetic acid environment. It occurs at room temperature and is characterised by a high and quite unusual regio- and stereoselectivity: remarkably the thermodynamically less favoured cis-arylalkenes are often obtained as major products.
The Fujiwara reaction appears very promising from the synthetic point of view also because both the inter- and intra-molecular versions of the reaction are known, thus expanding its applicability to the functionalisation of aromatic heterocycles and to the synthesis of coumarins. However, the possible industrial application requires the optimisation of the reaction conditions since the reaction is often quite slow, needs an excess of arene substrate, and it usually requires 1-5 mol% palladium which heavily affects the cost of the process. In the literature other metal centres, such as platinum(II), gold(I) and gold(III) have been successfully employed as alternative catalysts, but their efficiency appears to be lower than that of palladium(II). Also the use of non-noble, electrophilic metal centres has been reported, but their reactivity is lower and/or their applicability limited to aryl-acetylenes.
The initial aim of the present research project was to improve the yields of the reaction and decrease the catalyst loading. N-heterocyclic carbene ligands can improve the stability of the catalyst under the reaction conditions as well as its reactivity. Monocarbene Pd(II) complexes (IPr)Pd(OAc)2 and (IPr)Pd(OOCCF3)2 (IPr = N,N’-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)-imidazol-2-ylidene) are indeed the only complexes which have been reported to be active in the Fujiwara reaction in the absence of other promoters, though their activity is comparable to that of simple Pd(OAc)2.
In the initial part of this research work it has been shown that dicarbene palladium(II) complexes are able to catalyse the hydroarylation of alkynes at 80 °C, with excellent conversions and selectivities at low catalyst loading (0.1 mol%) and with equimolar amounts of reagents.
These dicarbene complexes have displayed a reactivity higher than simple palladium acetate and monocarbene palladium complex (12) tested in the same reaction conditions. Dicarbene platinum(II) complexes have also been employed and have performed an efficiency superior than Pt salts based systems reported in the literature.
The optimised protocol has resulted quite general with respect to the alkyne, while its applicability to arene substrates is at present limited to electron-rich molecules. However this is a limitation occurring with all Pd- and Pt-catalytic systems reported in the literature for the hydroarylation reaction.
Another part of the work has concerned the identification of the catalytic active species. Mechanistic studies, performed at 80 °C and made varying both the dicarbene ligand and the halide ligands at the metal, have revealed that the catalytic active species retains the dicarbene ligand in its coordination sphere. Halide anionic ligands are instead removed from the complex by exchange with the trifluoroacetate anion deriving from the acidic solvent media. The catalytic efficiency of the complex does not depend on the kind of halide ligands, but it is influenced by the nature of the dicarbene ligand.
Parallel electrochemical studies have been therefore made to evaluate the electronic density at the metal centre in different dicarbene complexes. The aim is to clarify if the catalytic efficiency of the complex is predominantly influenced by its electronic or steric properties, in order to design the best catalyst for the reaction.
Cyclic voltammetries have shown that the electronic density at the metal changes depending on the dicarbene ligand, but the scale of reduction potentials Pd(II)-Pd(0) is not correlated to the scale of catalytic activity. This suggests that the catalytic efficiency of such complexes in the Fujiwara reaction is predominantly influenced by the steric hindrance at the metal centre.
A successive optimisation of the reaction parameters (nature of the solvent system, concentration of the reagents, reaction temperature and use of co-catalysts) has allowed to further increase the selectivity of the reaction under mild reaction conditions. It has indeed found that, in the presence of silver salts (like AgTFA) as co-catalysts, the reaction can be run at room temperature, with conversion higher than the one displayed by palladium acetate in the same reaction conditions. Differently from at 80 °C, isomerisation to the more thermodinamically stable trans-arylalkene and hydrolysis reactions of the ester functions do not occur at room temperature, so that selectivity towards the cis-arylalkene product has been significantly improved.
Finally, the optimised catalytic system has been used with other substrates, such as aromatic heterocycles, obtaining also in this case high yields in products. However, the selectivity towards the desired product decreases by the formation of adducts heterocycle/alkyne 2/1.
A preliminary investigation of the reaction mechanism through kinetic studies has been also started. There is indeed at present some controversy about the reaction mechanism, that could be an electrophilic arene metalation or a Friedel-Crafts-type alkenylation.
The kinetic law has resulted of the first order in palladium and, in the adopted reaction conditions, of the first order also in arene or in alkyne. It remains to evaluate the dependence of the kinetic law from the concentration of the acid, which seems to have an important role in the reaction mechanism. However, it needs to be used in large excess with respect to the substrates and probably its principal role is to hydrolyse the vinyl-palladium species, invoked as catalytic intermediate in both the proposed mechanisms.
Dicarbene complexes of palladium(II) and platinum(II) have been also tested in other aromatic C-H bond functionalisation reactions, such as the ortho-functionalisation of acetanilides.Il presente progetto di ricerca riguarda l’applicazione di complessi dicarbenici di metalli di transizione in reazioni di funzionalizzazione/attivazione di legami C-H aromatici.
L’efficienza catalitica di questi complessi è stata principalmente valutata nella reazione di idroarilazione di alchini (reazione di Fujiwara), che consiste nell’addizione di areni ad alchini interni o terminali catalizzata da semplici composti di palladio(II), come Pd(OAc)2. Questa reazione decorre in ambiente acido, generalmente acido trifluoroacetico, a temperatura ambiente e presenta una elevata ed inusuale regio- e stereoselettività: si ottengono infatti come prodotti principali i cis-arilalcheni, che sono le olefine termodinamicamente meno favorite.
La reazione appare molto promettente dal punto di vista tecnologico, anche perché sono conosciute sia la versione inter- che quella intramolecolare, permettendo quindi la funzionalizzazione di eterocicli aromatici e la sintesi di cumarine. La potenziale applicazione industriale richiede però l'ottimizzazione delle condizioni di reazione, poichè la reazione è spesso lenta, necessita di un eccesso di arene rispetto all’alchino e viene condotta con un elevato tenore di catalizzatore (1-5%), fattore che incide pesantemente sul costo del processo.
Altri centri metallici, come Pt(II), Au(I) e Au(III), sono stati impiegati come catalizzatori alternativi, ma la loro reattività sembra essere inferiore a quella mostrata dai composti di palladio(II). Sono stati utilizzati anche centri metallici elettrofilici non nobili, ma la loro reattività è inferiore e/o la loro applicabilità limitata ai soli aril-acetileni.
L’obiettivo iniziale di questo progetto di tesi è stato quindi quello di migliorare le rese della reazione e diminuire il tenore di catalizzatore. Leganti carbenici N-eterociclici possono aumentare la stabilità del catalizzatore nelle condizioni di reazione e quindi la sua reattività. I complessi monocarbenici di palladio(II), (IPr)Pd(OAc)2 e (IPr)Pd(OOCCF3)2 (IPr = N,N’-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)-imidazol-2-ylidene) sono infatti gli unici complessi ad essere risultati attivi nella reazione di Fujiwara senza bisogno di promotori, sebbene la loro reattività sia comparabile a quella mostrata da Pd(OAc)2.
Nella prima parte di questo lavoro di ricerca è stato dimostrato che complessi dicarbenici di palladio(II) catalizzano la reazione ad 80 °C, con eccellenti conversioni e selettività a basso tenore di catalizzatore (0.1%) e con i reagenti in rapporto equimolare.
Questi complessi hanno mostrato una reattività maggiore rispetto al semplice palladio acetato ed al complesso monocarbenico (12) testati nelle stesse condizioni di reazione. Sono stati impiegati in questo studio anche complessi dicarbenici di Pt(II), che si sono dimostrati più attivi dei sistemi catalitici di platino riportati in letteratura.
Il protocollo ottimizzato è risultato abbastanza generale per quanto riguarda gli alchini, mentre la sua applicabilità agli areni è al momento limitata a molecole elettron-ricche. Questa è comunque una limitazione di tutti i sistemi catalitici di Pd e Pt riportati in letteratura per l’idroarilazione di alchini.
Una seconda parte del lavoro ha riguardato l’identificazione della specie cataliticamente attiva. Studi meccanicistici condotti ad 80 °C, variando sia il legante dicarbenico che i leganti anionici al metallo, hanno mostrato che la specie cataliticamente attiva mantiene il legante dicarbenico nella sua sfera di coordinazione, mentre i leganti anionici vengono rimossi dal complesso attraverso uno scambio con l’anione trifluoroacetato derivante dal solvente acido. L’efficienza catalitica del complesso non dipende dal tipo di leganti anionici, ma dipenda invece dalla natura del legante dicarbenico.
Sono stati inoltre effettuati studi elettrochimici per determinare la densità elettronica presente al centro metallico in complessi con diverso legante dicarbenico, con lo scopo di chiarire se l’efficienza del complesso sia principalmente influenzata dalle proprietà elettroniche o da quelle steriche di questo legante e di progettare così il migliore catalizzatore per la reazione.
Le voltammetrie cicliche hanno mostrato che la densità elettronica al centro metallico varia a seconda del legante dicarbenico, ma che la scala di potenziali di riduzione Pd(II)-Pd(0) non è correlabile alla scala di attività catalitica. L’efficienza di questo tipo di complessi nella reazione di Fujiwara sembra quindi essere principalmente influenzata dall’ingombro sterico al centro metallico.
La successiva ottimizzazione dei parametri di reazione (natura del solvente, concentrazione dei reagenti, temperatura di reazione ed utilizzo di co-catalizzatori) ha permesso di incrementare ulteriormente la selettività della reazione in condizioni di reazione blande. E’ stato infatti dimostrato che in presenza di sali di argento come co-catalizzatori (per esempio AgTFA) la reazione avviene anche a temperatura ambiente, con conversioni maggiori di quelle ottenute con palladio acetato nelle stesse condizioni di reazione. Diversamente che a 80 °C, le reazioni di isomerizzazione a trans-arilalchene (prodotto più stabile termodinamicamente) e le reazioni di idrolisi delle funzioni esteree non avvengono a temperatura ambiente, cosicché la selettività verso il cis-arilalchene viene notevolmente migliorata.
Infine, sono state determinate le condizioni sperimentali adatte per estendere questo protocollo sintetico ad eterocicli aromatici, ottenendo anche in questo caso elevate rese nei prodotti. La selettività della reazione verso il prodotto desiderato è però diminuita dalla formazione di addotti eterociclo/alchino 2/1.
Analisi preliminari di tipo cinetico hanno inoltre dato una prima indicazione sul tipo di meccanismo coinvolto nella reazione, che non è ancora del tutto chiarito e che potrebbe coinvolgere la metallazione elettrofilica dell’arene oppure una alchenilazione di tipo Friedel-Crafts.
La legge cinetica è risultata essere del primo ordine in palladio e, nelle particolari condizioni dei reazione adottate, anche del primo ordine in arene o in alchino. Rimane da valutare la dipendenza della legge cinetica dalla concentrazione di acido, che sembra avere un ruolo importante nel meccanismo di reazione. Deve essere infatti utilizzato in largo eccesso rispetto ai substrati e probabilmente il suo ruolo principale è quello di idrolizzare la specie vinilica di palladio, proposta come intermedio catalitico in entrambi i cicli riportati in letteratura.
I complessi dicarbenici di palladio(II) e platino(II) sono stati testati anche in altre reazioni di funzionalizzazione di legami C-H aromatici, come l’orto-funzionalizzazione di acetanilidi
Mild hydroarylation of alkynes with chelating dicarbene palladium(II) complex catalysts
No full textChelating dicarbene palladium(II) complexes have been found to catalyse the hydroarylation of alkynes with excellent conversions and selectivities at low catalyst loading (0.1 mol.%). Products of formal trans hydroarylation of the triple bond are formed in high yields. Optimisation of the reaction parameters (nature of the solvent system, concentration of the reagents, reaction temperature) allows to further increase the selectivity of the reaction under mild reaction conditions
Hydroarylation of alkynes catalysed by Pd(II) complexes: optimization of the reaction conditions
No full textC-H activation: a facile process?
No full textThe article is a critical review on general concepts of C-H bond
activation/functionalization, with particular reference to mechanistic and thermodynamic aspects
Highly efficient alkyne hydroarylation with chelating dicarbene palladium(II) and platinum(II) complexes
No full textWe report on a novel reaction protocol for the coupling of arenes with alkynes (the Fujiwara reaction), yielding products of formal trans-hydroarylation of the triple bond. The protocol makes use of a chelating N-heterocyclic dicarbene palladium(II) complex as catalyst and allows us to perform the reaction in a few hours with only 0.1 mol% catalyst yielding the trans-hydroarylation product in high yields and with excellent selectivity. We discuss the applicability of this reaction protocol, which appears at present quite general with respect to the alkyne, albeit limited to electron-rich arenes. We also present the results of catalyst optimisation with respect to the nature of the nitrogen substituents in the carbene units, of the bridging group between the carbene units and of the coordinated anionic ligands. Finally, we also discuss the catalytic performance of a related chelating dicarbene complex of platinum(II)
Living Diatom Microalgae for Desiccation-Resistant Electrodes in Biophotovoltaic Devices
Get PDFStrategies of renewable energy production fromphotosynthetic microorganisms are gaining great scientific interestas ecosustainable alternatives to fossil fuel depletion. Greenmicroalgae have been thoroughly investigated as living componentsto convert solar energy into photocurrent in biophotovoltaic (BPV)cells. Conversely, the suitability of diatoms in BPV cells has beenalmost completely unexplored so far, despite being the mostabundant class of photosynthetic microorganisms in phytoplanktonand of their good adaptability and resistance to harsh environ-mental conditions, including dehydration, high salinity, nutrientstarvation, temperature, or pH changes. Here, we demonstrate thesuitability of a series of diatom species (Phaeodactylum tricornutum,Thalassiosira weissflogii, Fistulifera pelliculosa, and Cylindrothecaclosterium), to act as biophotoconverters, coating the surface of indium tin oxide photoanodes in a model BPV cell. Effects of lightintensity, cell density, total chlorophyll content, and concentration of the electrochemical mediator on photocurrent generationefficiency were investigated. Noteworthily, biophotoanodes coated with T. weissflogii diatoms are still photoactive after 15 days ofdehydration and four rewetting cycles, contrary to analogue electrodes coated with the model green microalga Dunaliella tertiolecta.These results provide the first evidence that diatoms are suitable photosynthetic microorganisms for building highly desiccation-resistant biophotoanodes for durable BPV devices
Going Beyond Counting First Authors in Author Co-citation Analysis
Get PDFThe present study examines one of the fundamental aspects of author co-citation analysis (ACA) - the way co-citation
counts are defined. Co-citation counting provides the data on which all subsequent statistical analyses and mappings
are based, and we compare ACA results based on two different types of co-citation counting - the traditional type that
only counts the first one among a cited work's authors on the one hand and a non-traditional type that takes into
account the first 5 authors of a cited work on the other hand. Results indicate that the picture produced through this non-traditional author co-citation counting contains more coherent author groups and is therefore considerably clearer. However, this picture represents fewer specialties in the research field being studied than that produced through the traditional first-author co-citation counting when the same number of top-ranked authors is selected and analyzed. Reasons for these effects are discussed
Variations on the Author
Get PDF“Variations on the Author” discusses two of Eduardo Coutinho’s recent films (Um Dia na Vida, from 2010, and Últimas Conversas, posthumously released in 2015) and their contribution to the general question of documentary authorship. The director’s filmography is characterized by a consistent yet self-effacing form of authorial self-inscription: Coutinho often features as an interviewer that rather than express opinions propels discourses; an interviewer that is good at listening. This mode of self-inscription characterizes him as an author who is not expressive but who is nonetheless markedly present on the screen. In Um Dia na Vida, however, Coutinho is completely absent form the image, while Últimas Conversas, on the contrary, includes a confessional prologue that moves the director from the margins to the center of his films. This article examines the ways in which these works stand out in the filmography of a director who offers new insights into the notion of cinematic authorship
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