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Modulation dynamics of red surface emitting semiconductor lasers
No full textZusammenfassung:
Oberflächenemittierende Laser mit Vertikalresonator (VCSEL), die bei einer Wellenlänge von 650-670 nm emittieren, sind insbesondere für optische Datenverbindungen mit Plastikfasern geeignet, die ein Absorptionsminimum bei dieser Wellenlänge besitzen. Hier wird das Bauteildesign, die Herstellung und die Charakterisierung im stationären und modulierten Betrieb von selektiv oxidierten VCSEL beschrieben. Ein Herstellungsprozeß mit parasitätsarmem Bauteildesign wurde entwickelt. Die VCSEL-Geometrie wurde im Hinblick auf eine hohe optische Leistung, Betrieb bis zu hohen Temperaturen und eine schnelle Modulation untersucht. Wärmeerzeugung und -abfuhr und Ladungsträgertransport sollen dabei verstanden werden.
Die Absorption bzw. Photonenlebensdauer im VCSEL kann direkt aus den Meßwerten des externen Quantenwirkungsgrads extrahiert werden. Für Aperturen >13 µm ergibt sich eine Absorption von 13 cm-1, was hauptsächlich der Lichtabsorption durch freie Ladungsträger der Dotieratome zugeordnet werden kann. Zu kleineren Aperturen hin ergeben sich kürzere Photonenlebensdauern (statt 2.59 ps nur 1.52 ps bei einer Apertur von 3.5 µm). Zusätzliche optische Verluste treten auf, indem die Ausläufer der Gaußmode an einer kleinen Apertur gestreut werden.
Im Gleichstrombetrieb wurde die Temperatur im VCSEL-Inneren und die optische Ausgangsleistung abhängig von den Betriebsbedingungen (zugeführter Strom, Außentemperatur) und der Bauteilgeometrie (Mesa-, Aperturbreite) gemessen und mit einem Temperaturbilanzmodell rechnerisch nachvollzogen. Die Degradation der Stromschwelle und nicht die Degradation der Quantenausbeute legt den Wert in der Licht-Strom Kennlinie fest, an dem der Laser ausgeht. Durch die spektrale Verschiebung der Emissionswellenlänge ist die Temperatur im VCSEL-Inneren bekannt. Sie steigt für kleine Verhältnisse von Apertur- zu Mesabreite am wenigsten mit der Stromdichte an. Das Mesahalbleitermaterial über der engen Oxidapertur sorgt für eine Querverteilung der Wärme und des Stroms. Gleichzeitig hält die Apertur den als Heizquelle wirkenden Pumpschwellstrom klein. Für maximale optische Leistung ist dagegen eine mittlere Aperturgröße am besten. Zu kleinen Aperturen hin begrenzt die schlechtere Wärmeabfuhr über die thermische Leitfähigkeit die Ausgangsleistung. Zu großen Aperturen und damit auch großen Pumpströmen hin dominiert die dissipierte elektrische Leistung mit ihrer Wärmeerzeugung durch den elektrischen Widerstand. Im gepulsten Betrieb erhält man eine maximal mögliche Umgebungstemperatur von 150°C für das Materialsystem des 670 nm VCSEL GaInP/AlGaInP mit einer Banddiskontinuität von ca. 400 meV. Bei höheren Temperaturen gehen zu viele Elektronen den Quantenfilmen verloren. Dieser Wert entspricht den Innentemperaturwerten, bis zu denen im Gleichstrombetrieb Laseremission zu sehen war.
Mißt man die VCSEL-Antwort auf eine Kleinsignalmodulation der Stromamplitude und paßt eine Drei-Pol-Transferfunktion aus den Laserratengleichungen an, ist es möglich, die relative Wichtigkeit der vier bandbreitenlimitierenden Effekte in einem Halbleiterlaser zu bestimmen. Das ist die intrinsische Dämpfung der Resonanzspitze (0.17 ns K-Faktor -> 52 GHz Bandbreite), die thermische Sättigung der Resonanzfrequenz, das parasitäre und das transportbedingte parasitätsähnliche Absinken der Antwortfunktion (33 ps diffusive Transportzeit der Ladungsträger über die Einbettungs- und Barrierenschicht der 1-lambda-cavity -> 18 GHz Bandbreite). Durch eine dickere Passivierungsschicht reduzierten wir die Kontaktflächenkapazität und damit das parasitäre RC-Produkt und erreichen Modulationsbandbreiten von 4 GHz für einen 650 nm VCSEL. Beseitigt man das parasitäre Abfallen der Antwort zu hohen Frequenzen hin, ist das eigentliche Limit im roten VCSEL ein thermisches Limit - wie im Gleichstrombetrieb. Mit höherem Arbeitsstrom nimmt die Bauteilerwärmung zu und Photonendichte und Bandbreite sättigen. Der kleine Apertur-VCSEL mit dem besseren Temperaturbudget erreicht deutlich höhere Resonanzfrequenzen und zwar 6.3 GHz bei 4.5 mA mit einer Apertur von 3.5 µm (bei 657.9 nm). Aus den Modulationsmessungen läßt sich zudem über die Verstärkungskompression die lokale Einfangzeit von der Barrierenregion in den Quantenfilm als maximal 2 ps lang abschätzen.
Die digitale Großsignalantwort des VCSELs ist durch Ein- und Ausschaltverzögerungen weiter begrenzt. Die numerische Simulation der Antwort liefert für die Ladungsträgerlebensdauer an der Schwelle 0.39 ns (Apertur 7 µm) (wie auch aus der Schwellstromdichte des stationären Betriebs und aus der Kleinsignalmodulation). Bei einem Vorstrom über der Schwelle wird die Einschaltverzögerung mit steigender Kleinsignal-Resonanzfrequenz kürzer. Aber auch die RC-Aufladekurve durch die dünne Oxidschicht beeinflußt die Einschaltverzögerung noch. Es wurde ein Augendiagramm bei einer Datenrate von 1.25 Gb/s mit dem 650 nm VCSEL aufgenommen.Abstract:
Vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSEL) emitting at a wavelength of 650-670 nm are especially suited for optical data links with plastic fibre due to a minimum in transmission loss at this wavelength. The dissertation describes the device design, fabrication and characterization in constant and modulated operation of selectively oxidized VCSEL. A fabrication process with low-parasitics device design was developed. The VCSEL geometry was examined in view of high optical power, operation up to high temperatures and fast modulation. Heat generation and removal and carrier transport should be understood thereby.
The absorption or photon lifetime in the VCSEL can be extracted directly from the measured values of the external quantum efficiency. Apertures >13 µm yield an absorption of 13 cm-1, which mainly can be attributed to the intensity absorption due to free carriers of the dopants. Apertures < 13 µm show shorter photon lifetimes as the aperture size is decreased (instead of 2.59 ps only 1.52 ps with an aperture of 3.5 µm). Additional optical losses occur by scattering excess of the Gaussian mode from small apertures.
In direct current operation the temperature inside the VCSEL and the optical output power were measured dependent on the conditions of operation (supplied current, ambient temperature) and the device geometry (mesa width, aperture width). These measurements were duplicated mathematically by a temperature balance model. The degradation of the threshold current, not the degradation of the quantum efficiency, determines the value on the light-current characteristic, where the laser switches off. The temperature inside the VCSEL is known through the spectral shift of the emission wavelength. For small ratios of aperture to mesa width, it rises the weakest with current density. The mesa semiconductor material above the narrow oxide aperture provides for lateral distribution of heat and of current. Simultaneously the pump threshold current acting as heating source is kept small by the aperture. On the other hand a medium aperture size is best to achieve maximum optical power. Down to smaller apertures the poorer heat removal by thermal conductivity limits the output power. Up to large apertures and with it high pump currents the dissipated electrical power dominates with its heat generation by electrical resistance. In pulsed operation a maximum ambient temperature of 150°C is obtained for the material system of the 670 nm VCSEL GaInP/AlGaInP with a band offset of about 400 meV. At temperatures higher than this too many electrons escape the quantum wells. This value corresponds with the value of the internal temperature, up to which laser emission was observed during dc operation.
Measuring the VCSEL response to small-signal modulation of the current amplitude and fitting a three-pole transfer function from laser rate equations to it, enables us to determine the relative importance of the four different bandwidth-limiting effects in a semiconductor laser. These are the intrinsic damping of the resonance peak (0.17 ns K-factor -> 52 GHz bandwidth), the thermal saturation of the resonance frequency, the parasitic, and the transport induced parasitic-like roll-off of the response function (33 ps diffusive carrier transport time across the spacer and barrier layer of the 1-lambda-cavity -> 18 GHz bandwidth). Through a thicker passivation layer we reduced the contact area capacitance and thereby the parasitic RC-product and achieve modulation bandwidths of 4 GHz for a 650 nm-VCSEL. When the parasitic response roll-off with increasing frequency is eliminated, the main limit in red VCSELs is a thermal limit - as for dc operation. With higher drive currents the device heating grows and photon density and bandwidth saturate. The small-aperture VCSEL with the better temperature budget reaches far higher resonance frequencies, that is 6.3 GHz at 4.5 mA with an aperture of 3.5 µm (at 657.9 nm). Moreover, the modulation measurements yield a gain compression factor, from which the local capture time from the barrier region into the quantum well can be estimated as maximally 2 ps long.
The large-signal digital response of VCSELs is further limited by on- and off-switching delays. The numerical simulation of the response gives for the carrier lifetime at threshold a value of 0.39 ns (aperture 7 µm) (as results from threshold current densities of dc operation and from small-signal modulation). For biasing above threshold, the on-switching delay becomes shorter with increasing small-signal resonance frequency. But also the RC-charge curve due to the thin oxide layer still affects the on-switching delay. An eye-diagram at a data-rate of 1.25 Gb/s was recorded with the 650 nm VCSEL
Going Beyond Counting First Authors in Author Co-citation Analysis
Full text linkThe present study examines one of the fundamental aspects of author co-citation analysis (ACA) - the way co-citation
counts are defined. Co-citation counting provides the data on which all subsequent statistical analyses and mappings
are based, and we compare ACA results based on two different types of co-citation counting - the traditional type that
only counts the first one among a cited work's authors on the one hand and a non-traditional type that takes into
account the first 5 authors of a cited work on the other hand. Results indicate that the picture produced through this non-traditional author co-citation counting contains more coherent author groups and is therefore considerably clearer. However, this picture represents fewer specialties in the research field being studied than that produced through the traditional first-author co-citation counting when the same number of top-ranked authors is selected and analyzed. Reasons for these effects are discussed
Variations on the Author
Full text link“Variations on the Author” discusses two of Eduardo Coutinho’s recent films (Um Dia na Vida, from 2010, and Últimas Conversas, posthumously released in 2015) and their contribution to the general question of documentary authorship. The director’s filmography is characterized by a consistent yet self-effacing form of authorial self-inscription: Coutinho often features as an interviewer that rather than express opinions propels discourses; an interviewer that is good at listening. This mode of self-inscription characterizes him as an author who is not expressive but who is nonetheless markedly present on the screen. In Um Dia na Vida, however, Coutinho is completely absent form the image, while Últimas Conversas, on the contrary, includes a confessional prologue that moves the director from the margins to the center of his films. This article examines the ways in which these works stand out in the filmography of a director who offers new insights into the notion of cinematic authorship
Appropriate Similarity Measures for Author Cocitation Analysis
Full text linkWe provide a number of new insights into the methodological discussion about author cocitation analysis. We first argue that the use of the Pearson correlation for measuring the similarity between authors’ cocitation profiles is not very satisfactory. We then discuss what kind of similarity measures may be used as an alternative to the Pearson correlation. We consider three similarity measures in particular. One is the well-known cosine. The other two similarity measures have not been used before in the bibliometric literature. Finally, we show by means of an example that our findings have a high practical relevance.information science;Pearson correlation;cosine;similarity measure;author cocitation analysis
Dispelling the Myths Behind First-author Citation Counts
Full text linkWe conducted a full-scale evaluative citation analysis study of scholars in the XML research field to explore just how different from each other author rankings resulting from different citation counting methods actually are, and to demonstrate the capability of emerging data and tools on the Web in supporting more realistic citation counting methods. Our results contest some common arguments for the continued
use of first-author citation counts in the evaluation of scholars, such as high correlations between author rankings by first-author citation counts and other citation
counting methods, and high costs of using more realistic citation counting methods that are not well-supported by the ISI databases. It is argued that increasingly available digital full text research papers make it possible for citation analysis studies to go beyond what the ISI databases have directly supported and to employ more
sophisticated methods
koamabayili/VECTRON-author-checklist: VECTRON author checklist
No full textWe have done our best to complete the author checklist relating to the use of animals in the hut study. Note that the objective for the hut study was to evaluate the IRS treatment applications for residual efficacy against Anopheles mosquitoes, including the local An. coluzzii mosquito population. Cows were only used to attract mosquitoes into the huts and no tests were carried out directly on the cows. The author checklist is intended for use with studies where experiments are carried out on animals, which is why we have had such difficulty in completing this for the hut study, as many of the questions do not relate to how the cows were used
Author-wise bibliometric analysis based on entropy.
No full textAuthor-wise bibliometric analysis based on entropy.</p
Author Under Sail The Imagination of Jack London, 1893-1902
No full textIn Author Under Sail, Jay Williams offers the first complete literary biography of Jack London as a professional writer engaged in the labor of writing. It examines the authorial imagination in London's work, the use of imagination in both his fiction and nonfiction, and the ways he defined imagination in the creative process in his business dealings with his publishers, editors, and agents. In this first volume of a two-volume biography, Williams traverses the years 1893 to 1902, from London's "Story of a Typhoon" to The People of the Abyss. The Jack London who emerges in the pages of Author Under Sail is a writer whose partnership with publishers, most notably his productive alliance with George Brett of Macmillan, was one of the most formative in American literary history. London pioneered many author models during the heyday of realism and naturalism, blurring the boundaries of these popular genres by focusing on absorption and theatricality and the representation of the seen and unseen. London created an impassioned, sincere, and extremely personal realism unlike that of other American writers of the time. Author Under Sail is a literary tour de force that reveals the full range of London as writer, creative citizen, and entrepreneur at the same time it sheds light on the maverick side of machine-age literature.Intro -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Dedication -- Contents -- Acknowledgments -- Introduction -- 1. Spirit Truth -- 2. From Absorption to Theatricality and Back Again -- 3. "I Will Build a New Present" -- 4. Sons as Authors -- 5. Fathers as Publishers -- 6. The Daughter as Author -- 7. Lovers as Authors -- 8. At Sea with the Family -- 9. Yellow News, Yellow Stories -- 10. The Return Home -- Notes -- Bibliography -- Index -- About Jay WilliamsIn Author Under Sail, Jay Williams offers the first complete literary biography of Jack London as a professional writer engaged in the labor of writing. It examines the authorial imagination in London's work, the use of imagination in both his fiction and nonfiction, and the ways he defined imagination in the creative process in his business dealings with his publishers, editors, and agents. In this first volume of a two-volume biography, Williams traverses the years 1893 to 1902, from London's "Story of a Typhoon" to The People of the Abyss. The Jack London who emerges in the pages of Author Under Sail is a writer whose partnership with publishers, most notably his productive alliance with George Brett of Macmillan, was one of the most formative in American literary history. London pioneered many author models during the heyday of realism and naturalism, blurring the boundaries of these popular genres by focusing on absorption and theatricality and the representation of the seen and unseen. London created an impassioned, sincere, and extremely personal realism unlike that of other American writers of the time. Author Under Sail is a literary tour de force that reveals the full range of London as writer, creative citizen, and entrepreneur at the same time it sheds light on the maverick side of machine-age literature.Description based on publisher supplied metadata and other sources.Electronic reproduction. Ann Arbor, Michigan : ProQuest Ebook Central, YYYY. Available via World Wide Web. Access may be limited to ProQuest Ebook Central affiliated libraries
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