530 research outputs found
The implications of foreign aid fungibility for development assistance
No full textA foreign aid or foreign lending policy that focuses exclusively on project financing may have unintended consequences, report the authors. New research shows that aid intended for crucial social and economic sectors often merely substitutes for spending that recipient governments would have undertaken anyway and the funds that are thereby freed up are spent for other purposes. If the aid funds something that would have been done anyway, traditional ways of evaluating the aid's effectiveness are not really accurate. Ifaid funds are fungible and the recipient's public spending program is unsatisfactory, project lending may not be cost-effective. If the recipient's public spending program is satisfactory, perhaps the donor should finance a portion of it instead of financing individual projects. One solution to the problem of fungibility, then, is that donors could tie assistance to an overall public spending program (in the recipient country) that provides adequate resources to crucial sectors. To make this kind of reform operational, the authors propose a new lending instrument: a public expenditure reform loan (PERL). A PERL would tie an institution's lending strategy to the recipient country's achievement of mutually agreed-upon development goals. Everyone agrees that better donor coordination is needed, but it has been difficult to achieve because some donors tend to prefer projects (usually with the national flag flying over them). By agreeing on a public expenditure program and financing a portion of it, the World Bank credibly ask other donors to do the same.Payment Systems&Infrastructure,Development Economics&Aid Effectiveness,Gender and Development,Decentralization,Economic Adjustment and Lending,Development Economics&Aid Effectiveness,Poverty Assessment,National Governance,Economic Adjustment and Lending,Public Sector Economics&Finance
Acoustic Echo Method Using Least Mean Square Algorithm: Review
No full textSoumya Guru, Anand Swaroop Khare
Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods in Human Health and Disease Prevention
No full textDental caries still remains one of the most common chronic and multifactorial diseases worldwide, although a decline of the prevalence has been recorded in Western countries (Campus et al., 2007, 2009; Marja-Leena et al., 2008; Selwitz et al., 2007). It is the most common cause of tooth loss and pain in the oral cavity (Edelstein, 2006). The disease is the result over time of the interaction among cariogenic microorganisms, a diet rich in fermentable carbohydrates and host factors, like as saliva secretion rate and buffering capacity (Selwitz et al., 2007). A frequent intake of fermentable carbohydrates resulted in significant production of acid. The extent of the pH drop and the longevity of that fall are heavily regulated by saliva
Infrastructure finance : issues, institutions, and policies
No full textThe author analyzes the distinctive features of formal and informal financing of infrastructure and the principal issues policymakers must address in dealing with infrastructure finance: its adequacy in competitive financial systems, its budgetary vulnerability, the rationale for foreign finance, the role of user charges and taxes, the pros and cons of earmarking taxes, the institutional framework for infrastructure finance, the role of municipal finance, different approaches to the private financing of infrastructure (such as franchises, leases, management contracts, and consumer cooperatives), the critical role of contractor finance, and informal financing of infrastructure.The author concludes the following points. Not only the amount of funds but the regularity of their flow is central to maintaining infrastructure. But infrastructure must compete on a level playing field with other sectors. Any essential (but not open-ended) subsidies for maintaining universal minimum standards of service are best carried on the government budget, subject to periodic review. Institutional reform is needed to rationalize the division of resources and responsibilities among all layers of government and to provide mechanisms for insulating infrastructure finance from budgetary and other pressures. Such mechanisms include earmarking, privatization, and objective criteria for sharing value-added tax and other national tax revenue. Most developing countries do not have a national infrastructure agency to fund and coordinate technical assistance for infrastructure projects. The author makes a case for an apex financial entity in charge of municipal financial intermediaries for infrastructure, pointing to the instructive experience of intermediaries in Colombia and Jordan. One responsibility of such an agency would be to determine the necessary import content (for equipment, technical, and managerial expertise) of infrastructure finance, to prevent overborrowing. Privatization of infrastructure should be viewed as implicit earmarking, but official regulation of public utility prices should allow private utilities to generate retained earnings (to encourage self-financing) and should allow adjustments for inflation and exchange rate fluctuations. Infrastructure policy should allow for cost recovery through user charges as well as for tax revenues, especially through municipal taxes, since even the viability of loan finance depends on an efficient tax effort. While infrastructure finance is important, it is not always the decisive constraint, judging from the operating losses of even adequately funded infrastructure projects.Banks&Banking Reform,Public Sector Economics&Finance,Housing Finance,Urban Economics,Public&Municipal Finance
The public sector in the Caribbean : issues and reform options
No full textThe public sector's performance in the Caribbean varies, in reducing poverty and in creating an enabling environment for growth. Barbados and the Bahamas have been the high performers, Guyana and the Dominican Republic have been sluggish, and the other Caribbean countries fall in between. In the Caribbean region, the public sector is now the predominant provider of tertiary education and health services (university education and hospital-based curative care), which mainly benefit the nonpoor. Attempts must be made to recover costs from high-income users and use that revenue to improve the quality and quantity (as appropriate) of basic services. Lessons from experience suggest that most Caribbean countries need to encourage the private sector to participate more in providing infrastructure and need to provide a better regulatory framework. The good news: this is already taking place in many countries.Health Monitoring&Evaluation,Public Health Promotion,Public Sector Economics&Finance,Decentralization,Environmental Economics&Policies,Public Sector Economics&Finance,Health Monitoring&Evaluation,Poverty Assessment,National Governance,Inequality
Identification of Retinal Pigment Epithelium-Specific Clones
No full textv, 31 p.Macular degeneration is a classification of eye diseases that includes many
different, specific forms. Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is one particular
disease form and is one of the most frequently occurring, affecting over 30 percent of the
United States population over 75 years of age. AMD consists of two types, geographic
atrophy (dry), and choroidal neovascularization (wet), which is exceedingly worse and
can lead to blindness. The disease has proven to be highly complex, and the overall
causes and pathology of this disease are still unknown. Many risk factors are associated with AMD including smoking and hypertension; however, age is the most common risk factor. Although the specific pathology and causes of AMD are still unknown, it is thought to have significant ties to the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), a one-ceIl-thick layer located between the retina and choroid tissues. This layer maintains the blood-brain barrier and is imperative to the maintenance of the retina Currently there is relatively little knowledge about the RPE, the genes expressed in its cells, and their expression levels. However, it is hypothesized that gene mutation in RPE cells could be responsible for AMD as well as other macular dystrophies. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technology was used to compare gene expression in RPE cells to gene expression in cells of various other human tissues in order to identify genes with specific expression within RPE cells. Three genes were found to show expression in RPE cells, but not in the other human tissues. This data suggests that these three genes could be RPE-specific.Sensory Gene Microarray Node. Center for Retinal and Macular Degeneration. W.K. Kellogg Eye Center. University of Michigan. Ann Arbor, Michigan
Understanding the mechanism(s) of retinal degeneration in X -linked retinitis pigmentosa.
No full textX-linked retinitis pigmentosa (XLRP) is a clinically and genetically heterogeneous degenerative disease of the retina. RP2 and RP3 account for 10--20% and 70--90% of genetically identifiable disease, respectively. However, mutations in the corresponding genes, RP2 and RPGR, were detected in only 10% and 20% of XLRP families. To understand the pathogenesis of XLRP, a comprehensive analysis was undertaken using genetic, molecular, and biochemical methods. To determine where the remaining mutations lie, families with no apparent RPGR or RP2 mutation were genetically characterized. Haplotype analysis provided evidence of a distinct XLRP locus RP6 that is tightly linked to RP2 and RP3. A large cohort of 234 North American families with RP and apparent X-linked inheritance was screened for all known exons of RP2 and RPGR, including a novel mutational hotspot in RPGR-ORF15. Mutations were detected in 60% of XLRP patients; however, a considerable number of mutations were also identified in simplex RP males. This is significant because simplex cases account for 50% of all RP and this data suggests that RP2 and RPGR are responsible for 30% of these. RP2 and RPGR are ubiquitous proteins, yet the mutations result only in photoreceptor degeneration. To determine the function of RP2 in the retina, two distinct approaches were undertaken. Specific monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies were produced against a RP2-GST fusion protein expressed in E. coli. Immunocytochemistry and biochemical fractionation methods localized the RP2 protein to synaptic regions in the retina. RP2 interacting proteins were identified by the two-hybrid method using three different baits to screen a bovine retinal prey cDNA library. Two members of the ADP-ribosylation factor family, ARL2 and ARL3, were identified as specific interacting proteins. Localization and interaction results suggest that the RP2 protein has a role in subcellular trafficking in retinal synapses. These studies have broad implications on research not only for XLRP, but also for understanding photoreceptor biology and function.PhDBiological SciencesGeneticsUniversity of Michigan, Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studieshttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/131333/2/3057901.pd
Identification of Retinal Pigment Epithelium-Specific Clones
No full text1 broadside : ill.expressed in its cells, and their
expression levels.
However, it’s most commonly
hypothesized that gene
mutation in RPE cells could
be responsible for AMD as
well as other macular
dystrophies.
pathology and causes of AMD are still unknown, it is thought
to have significant ties to the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE),
a one-cell-thick layer located between the retinal and choroid
tissues. This layer maintains the blood-retina barrier and is
imperative to healthy maintenance of the retina. Currently
there is relatively little known about the RPE, the genes
Macular region of wet form AMD
Macular region of a normal, Macular region of dry form AMD
healthy human eye.
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a frequentlyoccuring
eye condition that affects over 30 percent of the
United States population over 75 years of age. AMD consists
of two types, geographic atrophy (dry), and choroidal
neovascularization (wet), which is exceedingly worse and can
lead to blindness.
This disease has proven to be
highly complex, and the overall
causes and pathology are still
unknown. Many risk factors are
associated with AMD including
smoking and hypertension;
however, age is the most common
risk factor. Although the specific
this study is to identify which genes are expressed in the RPE
and identify RPE-specific genes by comparing gene expression
in cells of the RPE to gene expression in cells of various other
human tissues. This first step in understanding gene
expression and specificity in the RPE improves our
understanding of its role in age-related macular degeneration.Kalamazoo College. Department of Biology. Diebold Symposium, 2003University of Michigan. W.K. Kellogg Eye Center.Introduction -- Materials and methods -- Results -- Discussion and conclusions -- Acknowledgment
Between rods and cones: The role of NR2E3 in retinal development.
No full textNR2E3 is a photoreceptor-specific nuclear receptor, mutations in which have been identified in human patients with the disease enhanced S-cone syndrome. In humans and in the rd7 mouse, loss of functional NR2E3 results in increased numbers of S-opsin containing cones and early-onset rod degeneration. Nr2e3 transcripts are not detected in the neural retina leucine zipper knock-out (Nrl-/-) mice, which exhibit excess functional S-cones and a rod-less retina. However, the biological function of NR2E3 in photoreceptor development and the mechanism of increased S-cones observed in the absence of NR2E3 had not been elucidated when this study was undertaken. I began my investigations to test the hypothesis that NR2E3 regulates the expression of genes critical for photoreceptor differentiation and function. To examine developmental expression pattern, I generated an anti-NR2E3 polyclonal antibody and showed that the NR2E3 protein is preferentially expressed in the developing and mature rod photoreceptors, but not in the cones. I then demonstrated that NR2E3 interacts with NRL, CRX and NR1D1 (another orphan nuclear receptor) and synergistically activates the promoters of several rod-specific genes. Moreover, NR2E3, together with NRL, abolishes CRX-mediated transactivation of the S-opsin promoter. By tagging the new-born rods with green fluorescence protein (GFP), I established that in the rd7 mouse S-cone genes are expressed in the photoreceptors fated to be rods, providing a possible mechanism of enhanced S-cones observed upon the loss of Nr2e3. My studies also showed that ectopic expression of Nr2e3 in photoreceptor precursors of the Nrl-/- mice induces rod-like morphology with concurrent expression of rod-specific genes while the expression of cone-specific genes is repressed. However, these rod-like cells do not respond to visual stimuli probably due to the lack of rod transducin. These dual transcriptional regulatory functions of Nr2e3 depend on the timing and level of its expression, but not on the presence of Nrl and/or Crx. I also performed gene profiling of GFP+ photoreceptors from wild-type and mutant mouse retinas. These studies have yielded novel insights into possible gene regulatory networks involved in photoreceptor development. In conclusion, my research investigations have established NR2E3 as a key transcriptional regulator of rod versus cone photoreceptor specification during mammalian retinal development.PhDBiological SciencesHealth and Environmental SciencesMolecular biologyNeurosciencesOphthalmologyUniversity of Michigan, Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studieshttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/125986/2/3224842.pd
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