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A strategy for co-extracting hydroxycinnamic acids with hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin from wheat residues in an integrated biorefinery
Get PDFThe original publication is available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/Cross-linkages with polysaccharides and lignin compromise hydroxycinnamic acid yields and purity in integrated biorefineries. A two-stage-alkaline-based process was sequentially optimised in a wheat straw (WS) and wheat bran (WB)-based biorefinery setup for selective co-production of hydroxycinnamic acids (p-Coumaric acid & ferulic acid) with hemicellulose at the mild-alkaline stage (MAS), and with lignin & cellulose-rich residues at severe-alkaline stage (SAS). The optimum MAS biorefining conditions gave hemicellulose, lignin, and hydroxycinnamic acid yields of 35, 60, and 85 % for WS, and 37, 72, and 66 % for WB, respectively. The WS hydroxycinnamic acids contained p-Coumaric acid (64 %) and ferulic acid (29 %), whereas WB's contained ferulic acid (95 %). At the SAS optimum conditions, cellulose and lignin yields were 76 and 60 % for WS ∼ 48 and 62 % for WB, respectively. The cellulose content and crystallinity of MAS WB residues increased by 111 and 100 %, respectively >55 and 14 % for WS. However, the SAS WS and WB residues' cellulose content and crystallinity increases were > 30 % and 10–20 %, respectively. Therefore, sequential optimization enabled selective hydroxycinnamic acid extraction and increased hemicellulose, lignin, and cellulose-rich residue yields. Furthermore, the optimal conditions for WS and WB at the two stages overlapped, allowing potential co-processing in integrated biorefineries.https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141813024097368Publisher’s versio
A systematic review of incentive schemes and their implications for truck driver safety performance
Get PDFThe original publication is available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/Introduction: This systematic review investigates the effects of monetary and non-monetary incentive schemes on the safety performance of truck drivers, a critical concern within the road freight industry. Method: The review analyzes 18 studies and dissects the impact of compensation levels, compensation methods, and non-monetary benefits on drivers’ safety behaviors. Results: The findings show that, in general, higher levels of compensation, both through selection and incentive effects, enhance safety performance by attracting more skilled drivers and incentivizing adherence to safety protocols. However, the structure of these compensations, particularly piece-rate wages, and payment for non-driving hours, reveals a double-edged sword; while incentivizing productivity, they inadvertently promote unsafe driving behaviors such as excessive speeding and insufficient rest due to economic pressures. Conversely, non-monetary incentives, though under-researched, show potential for improving safety outcomes by enhancing job satisfaction and work environment quality. Practical applications: This review highlights the need for future research on safety incentives to evaluate the full extent of the intersection between incentives, safety culture, and working conditions. It advocates for holistic compensation strategies that foster a safety culture in the trucking industry, marking a new direction for improving driver behavior.https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022437524002044Publisher’s versio
How young white Afrikaans women who serve on residence student leadership at Stellenbosch University conceptualise race, racism and white privilege
Get PDFThesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2025.Mouton, A. 2025. How young white Afrikaans women who serve on residence student leadership at Stellenbosch University conceptualise race, racism and white privilege. Unpublished masters thesis. Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University [online]. Available: https://scholar.sun.ac.za/items/ab1d99cb-6228-4035-9beb-ee517534a63cThe study responds to the Khampepe Commission's report on racism allegations at Stellenbosch University (2022), emphasising the need for students and staff, especially white Afrikaans individuals for whom the university was historically established, to engage in critical reflection on their understandings and experiences with race. It focuses on the influential residence spaces essential to the university's transformation agenda. While numerous studies have examined higher education, the explorative research specifically examines the intersections of femininity and race, thereby contributing to limited literature. Focusing on the perspectives of nine white Afrikaans women serving on residence student leadership, the research explores their conceptualisation of race, racism and white privilege. Through empirical, in-depth qualitative data collection via a focus group and individual interviews, thematic analysis reveals four key themes – (1) Ambivalence – ignorance and shame; (2) Intersectionality; (3) Students as active anti-oppressive agents; and (4) Politics of Performativity. Grounded in Zembylas's anti-oppressive and affect theory, the study examines how these women navigate their privilege and identities, becoming increasingly aware of their intersectional implications as student leaders. The discussion emphasises the inescapability of race in conversations of gender, language, and transformation, particularly in post-apartheid South Africa, where these emotions and systems of power are deeply intertwined. Ultimately, I argue the importance of confronting the discomfort surrounding the social construction of race and white privilege. This involves the imperative for white students to engage in open, robust dialogue in diverse spaces, working through their feelings of shame, fear and anger using strategic empathy, as outlined by Zembylas. Recognising that ambivalence is part of change, the study contends that genuine transformation can only occur when these feelings are critically explored.Master
Influence of heat treatment on the microstructure and tensile properties of 420 stainless steel febricated by laser powder bed fusion
Get PDFThesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2025.Sepako, M. 2025. Influence of heat treatment on the microstructure and tensile properties of 420 stainless steel febricated by laser powder bed fusion. Unpublished masters thesis. Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University [online]. Available: https://scholar.sun.ac.za/items/41839a37-b2aa-407f-ac7f-e966a7e1751cThe study aimed to determine suitable processing parameters for producing fully dense 420 stainless steel (420SS) through Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF). The results showed the as-built density between 94.8 to 99.9 % was achieved with laser powers between 90 and 200 W and related volumetric energy densities (VED) ranging from 63.0 to 158 J/mm³. The L-PBF processing parameters identified for high-density, high-hardness parts were VED values from 84.6 to 158 J/mm³, which combined laser power settings between 145 and 200 W, and scanning speeds between 510 and 700 mm/s and hatch distance between 0.06 mm and 0.12 mm. These processing parameters resulted in high density between 98.9 to 99.9 % and hardness values between 523 to 608 HV. The chosen processing parameters were at VED of 136.6 J/mm³ combining laser power of 200 W, scanning speed at 680 mm/s and hatch distance of 0.07 mm. The as-built 420SS produced with the chosen parameters recorded a yield strength of 464 MPa, ultimate tensile strength of 1503 MPa, and elongation of 21 %. Fracture analysis of the as-built material showed a mixed mode of ductile and brittle fracture. The study extended to heat treatment; two schedules were used. The first schedule, +T-400 (tempering at 400 °C), significantly improved the microstructure, hardness, and mechanical properties of the L-PBF produced 420SS. It softened the martensitic structure, relieved internal stresses, and resulted in a more homogeneous microstructure with refined martensitic laths. The heat treatment reduced hardness anisotropy, with hardness values becoming more consistent across the build orientations. Post-tempering, tensile properties showed notable improvements, including increased yield strength to 587 MPa, tensile strength to 1535 MPa, and elongation to 25 %, with a predominantly ductile fracture surface observed. The second heat treatment schedule, +QT-560 °C, involved austenitising at 1000 °C in argon, gas quenching, and tempering at 560 °C. The formation of chromium-rich carbides during tempering contributed to improved hardness. The +QT-560 treatment resulted in significant increases in yield strength to 667 MPa compared to the as-built and +T-400 conditions; however, there was a noticeable decrease in the ultimate tensile strength to 890 MPa and elongation was reduced to 7.9 %. Fracture analysis revealed a mixed fracture mode, with both ductile and brittle characteristics, indicating a trade-off between high strength and reduced ductility.Master
Impact of Surface Roughness on Flow Dynamics over Ogee Spillways
Get PDFThesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2025.Groenewald, J. 2025. Impact of Surface Roughness on Flow Dynamics over Ogee Spillways. Unpublished masters thesis. Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University [online]. Available: https://scholar.sun.ac.za/items/41c37863-a7cc-4cc1-b55b-c7a3254d4790Spillways are essential hydraulic structures that protect dams from overtopping by safely conveying excess water downstream. Among these, the ogee spillway is a widely implemented structure due to its hydraulic efficiency and stability. Despite their proven effectiveness, the long-term performance of ogee spillways can deteriorate due to surface degradation over time, leading to increased surface roughness. This can significantly affect flow behaviour, introducing risks such as cavitation, air entrainment, and flow separation – each of which may compromise structural integrity. The research is motivated by the need to better understand how operational wear and environmental exposure impact spillway safety and effectiveness. As surface roughness increases, flow conditions can shift unpredictably, leading to elevated risks of structural damage. This research addresses the impact of increased surface roughness, due to wear and ageing, on the hydraulic performance and safety of ogee spillways. A combined experimental and numerical research design was used. This research investigates the influence of uniform surface roughness heights on the hydraulic performance of an ungated, concrete ogee spillway with a standard United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) crest profile. It excludes adjacent energy dissipating structures, focusing solely on flow behaviour along the spillway face. Flow behaviour was analysed using a physical model tested in a laboratory flume and a numerical model developed in FLOW-3D HYDRO. Both were tested under five discharges, namely 0.072 m³/s, 0.105 m³/s, 0.222 m³/s, 0.447 m³/s, and 0.503 m³/s, and five roughness heights, smooth (0 mm), 0.15 mm, 0.6 mm, 0.9 mm and 1.18 mm. The numerical model was calibrated against the experimental results to ensure accuracy. Both model results were analysed using multiple linear regression and revealed that surface roughness influenced hydraulic behaviour across the ogee spillway profile. Although many observed changes were statistically significant at selected locations, the overall hydraulic impact was minor – suggesting that while roughness, as a proxy for prolonged, natural surface degradation, should be considered in the context of long-term maintenance and material degradation, its influence is not substantial enough to warrant prioritisation in initial design compared with discharge and other governing parameters. Increased roughness consistently reduced velocities in both models, reaching up to a 17% velocity decrease in the numerical model. Both the physical and numerical models showed that discharge decreased pressures upstream and increased downstream. Roughness generally increased pressures, but this increase was statistically significant only near the spillway toe, and the absolute change was very small (≈0.02% along the profile). Increased roughness generally raised the cavitation index (s), reducing cavitation risk. However, this protective effect is statistically significant only at selected mid-chute locations. Notably, the cavitation index never fell below the risk threshold of 0.02, only reaching a minimum of 8.79 near the toe region. Flow separation risk is greatest near the crest under increased roughness and lower Reynolds numbers, but decreases downstream where higher values, stronger turbulence, and bulk acceleration help the flow remain attached. However, remained above values typically associated with laminar or transitional separation risk, reaching a minimum of ≈10 219. Air entrainment behaviour varied between the models. In the numerical model, the inception point moved downstream with increasing discharge, and higher roughness enhanced aeration, consistent with the literature. In contrast, the physical model showed reduced aeration with increased roughness and the highest aeration near the crest, indicating that the physical response warrants further investigation. However, it must be emphasised that the physical model’s air entrainment data were subject to significant measurement uncertainty due to probe submergence limitations, local surface disturbances, and scale effects. These results were therefore used qualitatively and excluded from numerical model calibration and validation. The trends reported from the numerical model are thus considered more reliable for interpreting aeration behaviour. Overall, the findings highlight that roughness is not merely a sign of deterioration but can, in some contexts, offer hydraulic advantages when strategically applied.Master
Early Acquisition of Grammatical Morphology in Tshivenda: A Study of Toddlers Aged 2;4 years to 2;6 years
Get PDFThesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2025.Nethathe, A. V. 2025. Early Acquisition of Grammatical Morphology in Tshivenda: A Study of Toddlers Aged 2;4 years to 2;6 years. Unpublished masters thesis. Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University [online]. Available: https://scholar.sun.ac.za/items/567bb1c7-7fd2-49c4-be1d-2f16d8ab7590This study investigates the acquisition of morphosyntactic features in Tshivenda-speaking children aged 2;4 to 2;6 years. It examines the use of noun class prefixes, subject and object markers, nominal agreement (including possessives, demonstratives and adjectives), verbal morphology (extensions, passives, tense, negation) and complex constructions (relative clauses, clefts, locatives and prepositions). Data consists of one-hour recordings of the spontaneous speech of 15 monolingual Tshivenda-speaking children in family interactions collected during the validation of the Tshivenda adaptation of the MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories (CDI), a parent report tool on children’s early language abilities from 8 to 30 months (Fenson et al. 1994). The analysis focuses on the production of morphosyntactic features to determine developmental patterns.
Findings show that by 2;6 years, Tshivenda-speaking children have largely mastered the major morphosyntactic features of their language. They produced noun class prefixes accurately and they consistently used subject and object markers correctly. Verbal morphology was productively and correctly employed, including verbal extensions, tense and negation. Passive constructions were produced in the short form using verbal extensions but with no instances of the long passive. Locatives and prepositions were also used accurately. No relative clauses or cleft constructions were produced. This absence may be because of their lack of exposure to these constructions in spoken input, their difficulty, or because the data were limited to one-hour recordings per child. Overall, this study finds that by 2;6 years, Tshivenda-speaking children can successfully produce core morphosyntactic features, a pattern consistent with findings from other Bantu languages.
Importantly, this is the first study to document the acquisition of Tshivenda, providing novel empirical evidence on its developmental patterns and contributing to the broader understanding of morphosyntactic acquisition in Bantu languages.Master
Determining the Source and Distribution of Atmospheric Mercury over the Southern Ocean
Get PDFThesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2025.Mugabe, V. F. 2025. Determining the Source and Distribution of Atmospheric Mercury over the Southern Ocean. Unpublished masters thesis. Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University [online]. Available: https://scholar.sun.ac.za/items/583b37d3-9e1c-48d2-bba8-41e045c41e40The role of the South Atlantic as a source or sink in the global atmospheric mercury cycle remains understudied. Here we present the concentrations of atmospheric mercury over the South Atlantic Ocean, an atmospheric mercury data scarce region. Continuous measurements of atmospheric mercury were conducted using a Tekran 2537X instrument during the Southern Ocean Seasonal Cycle Experiment (SCALE) cruise in 2022 from 13 – 31 July (austral winter) between Cape Point and the Antarctic Ocean ice edge. We report on mean gaseous elemental mercury concentrations in a global context and discuss specific peak and depletion events during the southward and return voyages. The mean concentrations during the southward and return voyages were 1.21 ± 0.23 ng/m3 and 1.22 ± 0.09 ng/m3 respectively. The concentrations over most of the transect ranged from 1.10 – 1.40 ng/m3. During the southward voyage, we observed a peak in atmospheric mercury concentrations at 40.40oS that lasted 7 hours reaching 1.87 ng/m3. We furthermore observed three depletion events (as low as 0.66 ng/m3) close to the sea ice edge. We suggest that these depletion events were caused through mixing of air masses that carried a typical background concentration over the ocean with air masses that carried an Antarctic atmospheric mercury depletion event (AMDE) signal leading to a depleted signal over the ocean. To better constrain the environmental drivers that may have affected the atmospheric mercury concentrations during the voyages, air mass trajectories were modelled, wind directions assessed, and environmental conditions investigated. 168 hours long back trajectories were generated using the HYSPLIT model accessed via the NOAA Air Resources Laboratory READY (Real time Environmental Applications and Display sYstem) website. The back trajectories indicated that the air mass source regions throughout both northward and southward voyages were all oceanic with a few back trajectories indicating southern South America as a terrestrial source region. The mean atmospheric mercury concentrations in the southward and return voyages were not significantly different (p > 0.05) despite higher intensity of solar radiation during the return trip than the southward voyage. This eliminated solar radiation as a control on oceanic mercury degassing and ultimately atmospheric mercury variation along the transect. The highest atmospheric mercury concentrations during the whole cruise were recorded during westerly winds and the lowest were recorded during southerly winds. Overall, our results suggest that the Southern Ocean acts more as a sink rather than a source of atmospheric mercury. We further compare South Atlantic atmospheric mercury concentrations to concentrations recorded at Cape Point, South Africa, during the same period. Air masses at Cape Point and along the transect had been mostly oceanic and indicated similar concentration means of 1.24 ± 0.40 ng/m3 and 1.22 ± 0.18 ng/m3 respectively. Our findings will assist policy makers in monitoring the influence of anthropogenic mercury releases on background concentrations.Master
Transforming Ecclesiological Imagination on Liturgy: Reimagining a Dutch Reformed Church in Durbanville
Get PDFThesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2025.Breytenbach, W. M. 2025. Transforming Ecclesiological Imagination on Liturgy: Reimagining a Dutch Reformed Church in Durbanville. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University [online]. Available: https://scholar.sun.ac.za/items/78ea4633-3d9b-4e4a-9829-94ced652050aThis study investigates how selected members of Durbanville Gemeente, a Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa, conceive of what it means to be a faithful Christian church. Their ecclesiological imagination is examined in relation to the theological and sociocultural challenges posed by whiteness. The study explores how the legacy of whiteness restricts participants’ ability to imagine and practice an inclusive and integral church, particularly in a diverse society like South Africa. The central research question is how the participants’ ecclesiological imagination can become more integral and inclusive across three key aspects: modes of existence, levels of inclusivity, and dimensions of incarnation. The research adopts a practice-orientated methodology within the field of ecclesiology, utilising empirical work to gather data through participant interviews, journals, and group reflections. Drawing on Ken Wilber’s integral theory as a theoretical framework, the study delineates how participants envision liturgy across four modes of existence: Individual Internal, Individual External, Collective Internal, and Collective External. Additionally, the study assesses levels of inclusivity, ranging from essentialism to beyond-essentialism, and examines dimensions of incarnation, focusing on both spiritual experiences and tangible expressions of faith in communal actions. The central problem addressed is how whiteness impedes the participants’ ability to engage meaningfully with colour and power dynamics in their ecclesiological imagination. Prior to the introduction of practices of change aimed at transformation, such as liturgy, shared meals, Dwelling in the Word, and reflective exercises, participants exhibited a limited and exclusive ecclesiology, characterised by low levels of inclusivity and minimal racial awareness. However, following the implementation of these transformative practices, a notable shift occurred towards a more integral and inclusive imagination, with increased recognition of colour and power dynamics, and a greater embrace of diverse identities within the liturgical community. The study makes a novel contribution to ecclesiological discourse by enhancing the understanding of how whiteness operates within the ecclesiological imagination and by offering practical theological interventions to address it. It serves as a resource for the church council of Durbanville Gemeente, the problem owner, by providing actionable insights into fostering inclusivity within their congregation. The research reveals multiple ecclesiological imaginations coexisting within the congregation of Durbanville Gemeente. These differing perspectives often lead to tension and conflict, challenging the church’s traditional mission and its ability to maintain a prophetic voice. By reimagining the church in alignment with the basileia tou theou, the study advocates for a shift towards a more integral ecclesiological imagination with a high level of inclusivity. This reorientation emphasises the church’s role in addressing social injustices and contributing to societal transformation through liturgy. The findings call for a liturgical renewal that enhances the church’s public witness, positioning it as a vital agent of change in the broader community, beyond the confines of individual salvation. Through this work, the study challenges and expands the boundaries of liturgical imagination in the context of post-1994 South Africa, offering a pathway towards a more inclusive and transformative ecclesiology.Doctora
The Financial Viability of a 5 MW Biomass Power Station for Stellenbosch
Get PDFThesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2025.De Wet, M. 2025. The Financial Viability of a 5 MW Biomass Power Station for Stellenbosch. Unpublished masters thesis. Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University [online]. Available: https://scholar.sun.ac.za/items/85c8e887-6323-425d-ab37-8836a49e85d1A 5 MW biomass-to-energy [BtE] power station presents a valuable and practical solution for the Stellenbosch Municipality [SM] to secure a source of dispatchable power, capable of generating up to 36 GWh per annum of renewable energy. This output represents approximately 15% of SM’s average energy consumption per annum. An earlier study conducted by the Centre for Renewable and Sustainable Energy Studies of the Stellenbosch University concluded that the levelised cost of electricity [LCOE] from such a BtE project was too high to be economically feasible. This thesis revisits those findings and demonstrates that the LCOE can be reduced to an estimated R2.80 to R3.00 per kilowatt-hour (VAT excluded). Although these values remain above the current average municipal infeed tariff of approximately R2.10 per unit (excluding VAT), the projected escalation of Eskom’s tariffs relative to those of the BtE power station is expected to deliver an internal rate of return of 16% per annum by 2028. This outcome is enabled through the establishment of a long-term (20-year) power purchase agreement between the independent power producer and Stellenbosch Municipality. For an IRR of 16% p.a. the BtE project is dependent on several key success factors:
• Capital investment of the power station as well as its wood processing and dry storage facility: not to exceed R 388 million (VAT excluded)
• Escalation on revenue required: 6.4 % per annum (or at a rate consistently lower than Eskom’s electricity price increases)
• Loan period: 15 years or longer
• Interest rate: 11.50% per annum, or lower
• Plant annual capacity factor: 80 % or better
• Biofuel feedstock costs: R800 per tonne (VAT excluded)
• Average fuel consumption: 50 000 tonnes per annum or lower
A critical determinant of the project success is the reliable supply of biomass feedstock. The Cape Winelands District Municipality [CWDM], with its diverse composition of ‘unwanted’ biomass resources, offers a sustainable supply base. Biomass from invasive alien trees in the district’s five major riparian zones of the Berg, Bot, Breede, Hex, and Zonderend rivers, can be sustainably harvested at approximately 16 000 tonnes per annum. This resource currently has an incremental natural growth rate of 180 000 tonnes per annum. In addition, recycled fruit orchards and vineyards across CWDM contribute an estimated 100 000 tonnes of dry biomass per annum. A participation rate of 33% from local fruit and wine farmers could provide 32 000 tonnes annually, sufficient to meet the rest of the power station’s feedstock demand of approximately 44 000 to a maximum of 50 000 metric tonnes per annum. Should farmer participation be lower, supplementary biomass can be sourced from refuse derived fuels and the woody fraction of garden refuse collected by SM and surrounding municipalities. Adequate space is available on the site of the wastewater treatment works of SM to accommodate the proposed power station. This site is located directly adjacent to the main high-voltage substation of SM, an essential component required to connect the power station to the distribution network of the town. This thesis demonstrates that, with the identified feedstock availability and financial parameters in place, the proposed BtE power station can achieve the necessary key success factors, thereby establishing the technical and financial viability of the proposed biomass to energy plant.Master
The applicability of large-scale Rain-on-Grid hydrological modelling in South Africa
Get PDFThesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2025.Bolt, N. 2025. The applicability of large-scale Rain-on-Grid hydrological modelling in South Africa. Unpublished masters thesis. Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University [online]. Available: https://scholar.sun.ac.za/items/911455f3-0ead-4d88-a532-767a3e6d9dbfRain-on-grid (RoG) modelling offers a direct way to simulate runoff generation from rainfall and two-dimensional routing without pre-defined hydrographs, but its skill at larger spatial scales under data constraints remains uncertain. This research evaluates the applicability and limits of RoG using HEC-RAS 2D (Version 6.4.1) in the Berg River Basin, South Africa (Misverstand outlet), with a 30 m Shuttle Radar Topography Mission-based (SRTM) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and derived stream network. The research spans smaller-scale and large-scale applications, moving from controlled event-scale tests to catchment-wide calibration and diagnostics. The methodological programme first established a smaller-scale baseline through calibration and validation, then conducted large-scale calibration using three global adjustments (burned digital elevation model to enforce connectivity, reduced synthetic wetting depth, and selective South African National Land Cover (SANLC) river-channel corrections) and systematic parameter trials of Curve Number (CN) and Manning's n (n). A second stage varied channel-burn width/depth to test routing sensitivity. Robustness was then probed across four independent events (2001, 2008, 2016, 2018). Finally, upstream diagnostic tests and close-gauge rainfall comparisons were used to separate model-structure effects from rainfall input challenges. Results show a consistent pattern. At smaller-scale, event timing and hydrograph shape were reproduced with high fidelity, while magnitude errors persisted. At large-scale, routing refinements and plausible CN/n adjustments improved timing and shape locally, but did not remove the magnitude bias. Across independent events, the 2001 peak was overestimated by 12% with good shape; the first 2008 peak was underestimated by 4% but arrived 10.6 h early; the 2016 first peak was overestimated by 26% with 1.3 h delay; and the 2018 event showed pervasive overestimation, with the historical peak exceeded by 75%. These cross-event outcomes indicate that discrepancies are not purely structural and motivated targeted diagnostics. Upstream sub-catchment tests during the high-bias 2018 period retained substantial overestimation despite markedly smaller contributing areas (G1H008 and G1H078), indicating that reducing modelled area does not eliminate the discrepancy and shifting the weight of evidence toward rainfall input uncertainty (depth, timing, and spatial allocation). Complementary comparisons between pairs of rainfall gauges only 1.6 km and 2.4 km apart revealed multiple days with >10 mm differences in daily totals, demonstrating that sizeable inconsistencies can occur even over short distances with minimal elevation contrast. Together, these diagnostics support the interpretation that rainfall input uncertainty is the dominant driver of large-scale magnitude error in this setting. Terrain-routing experiments clarified the role of channel burning: enforcing a continuous thalweg reduced spurious storage and improved alignment, but stronger burns traded hydrograph realism for sharper timing as floodplain exchange was curtailed. No burn configuration alone resolved the remaining magnitude bias, underscoring that routing refinements cannot compensate for uncertain forcing. At 30 m resolution, smoothing of hillslope micro-topography and omission of minor headwater lines reduce hillslope-channel coupling, further complicating magnitude recovery. The research contributes: (i) a transparent calibration-to-diagnostic pathway for RoG under real data constraints; (ii) evidence that RoG can be relied upon for event timing and hydrograph evolution at small and medium scales; and (iii) a practical interpretation that large-scale magnitude fidelity is contingent on corroborated rainfall inputs and terrain representation that preserves connectivity. Limitations include reliance on available gauge networks, a 30 m DEM, and the lack of detailed information on hydraulic structure locations and dimensions. Recommendations prioritise a rainfall gauge reliability assessment, cautious use of burn strength, selective parameter refinement where justified, consideration of warm-start initialisation, and exploration of hydrologically conditioned DEMs for preserving hillslope pathways at coarse grids.Master