Caraka Tani: Journal of Sustainable Agriculture
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Simulation-Based System Modeling of Grazing Land Management for Beef Cattle Development in East Luwu, Indonesia
Full text linkSignificant population growth has increased demand for beef, while domestic production lags. Poor grazing land management and cattle population pressure remain major constraints, underscoring the need for sustainable solutions. This study aims to develop a system dynamics model and formulate grazing land management strategies to support sustainable beef cattle farming in East Luwu Regency, as one of the cattle production centers in South Sulawesi with extensive but increasingly degraded grazing lands. Conducted from May to July 2025, the model integrated grazing land and cattle population dynamics through causal loop and stock-flow diagrams, while the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) was used to prioritize management strategies. The model reveals that cattle population dynamics are primarily influenced by forage availability, cattle purchases, and birth rates, while grazing land depends on water supply, soil quality, and land availability. From 2020 to 2024, the average grazing land area was 3,013.72 ha with a grass regeneration rate of 1.11 kg ha-1 day-1 and a declining maximum carrying capacity (3,075 ind ha-1 year-1). During the same period, the cattle population averaged 20,411 heads but declined annually by -1,036.5 heads, with a feed ratio of only 0.03% per day, highlighting the urgent need for an effective management strategy. The AHP results indicate that the Integrated Feed Management and Population Control (IFM-PC) strategy achieved the highest score across sustainability criteria, while the reduced stocking rate (SR↓/ha) ranked lowest. This study concludes that grazing land and cattle populations in East Luwu are undergoing considerable degradation, and implementing IFM-PC is crucial for long-term sustainability
Prospect for Vegetative Bulbs Productions and Enlargement of Rose Onion (Allium cepa L.) Via Agro-Physiological Optimization in Tropical Climate
Full text linkRose onion (Allium cepa L.), a unique red onion from Karnataka, India, is valued across Asia for its culinary significance. Recent onion supply disruptions have triggered an export ban from India, causing price surges and declining onion quality. This study evaluated two agro-physiological cultivation methods for rose onion under tropical Malaysian conditions to address Malaysia’s onion import dependency. The bulbification method aimed at optimizing planting material production utilized open field conditions and resulted in enhanced pseudostem proliferation (p < 0.001) and increased bulb counts (p < 0.001). In contrast, the bulking method, designed to maximize yield, employed shaded environments and nutrient management, achieving an 86% yield increase (10.78 tons ha-1) and higher economic returns (102,410 MYR ha-1). Key physiological measurements, including chlorophyll content (+30.68%, p < 0.05) and water-use efficiency (+87.71%, p = 0.003), highlighted the adaptability of both methods to tropical climates. Economic analysis revealed that although pre-harvest costs were 65% higher for the bulking method, it generated 63,715 MYR in net profit, representing a 450% increase in profitability and a benefit-cost ratio (BCR) of 2.65. The findings support targeted cultivation strategies based on production objectives and emphasize the agronomic value of integrating physiological monitoring and cost-benefit analysis in tropical onion systems
Potassium Fractionation and Stock in Clay Soils: Influence of Geochemical and Mineralogical Properties in Yogyakarta Region, Indonesia
Full text linkResearch on potassium (K) dynamics in upland clay soils, particularly those derived from tertiary-aged rocks, remains limited in Yogyakarta. This study aimed to investigate the relationships among geochemical indices, K fractions, and K stock in upland clay soils, considering the influence of their physical, chemical, and mineralogical properties. Thirty soil samples were collected from five geological formations at two depths (0 to 20 and 20 to 40 cm), with three replicates selected from each formation through purposive sampling. Soil characterization was performed using routine methods, energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses. Geochemical indices such as the chemical index of alteration (CIA), Vogt residual index (VR), alumina to potassium oxide ratio (AKN), silica to sesquioxide (Si/Seq), and Ruxton ratio (R) were calculated, and K stock was determined. The results showed that feldspar contributes to K stock in upland clay soils. Spearman’s correlation analysis revealed that only the AKN index significantly correlated with K-pseudo-total and K-non-exchangeable (p < 0.01). The highest K-pseudo-total concentration was found in P4-Sentolo (1,326 to 1,715 mg kg-¹) and the highest concentrations of K-non-exchangeable were observed in P5-Kebobutak (1.37 to 1.78 cmolc kg-¹). Significant correlations between K-exchangeable and K-water-soluble with total organic carbon and K-non-exchangeable were also identified (p < 0.01). The highest K-exchangeable concentration was recorded in P2-Nglanggran (0.17 to 0.33 cmolc kg-¹), while the lowest was found in P1-Wonosari (0.04 to 0.09 cmolc kg-1). All clay soils exhibited K-exchangeable concentrations below the critical deficiency level. Understanding these relationships is crucial for effective soil management and sustainable agricultural production. Targeted fertilization strategies can be developed based on the dominant K fraction in each soil
Biochar Quality During Slow Pyrolysis from Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches and Its Application as Soil Ameliorant
Full text linkThe optimal utilization of oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) waste holds significant potential for biomass bioconversion via slow pyrolysis, presenting a promising alternative for producing high-quality biochar as a soil ameliorant. This study investigates the effects of slow pyrolysis temperatures (≤ 300 °C) on the physicochemical properties of biochar derived from OPEFB and evaluates its efficacy as a soil ameliorant. This study utilized a completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications across two experiments. The first experiment assessed the effect of slow pyrolysis temperature on the quality of biochar derived from OPEFB, with treatments set at four temperatures (150, 200, 250, and 300 °C) levels. The second experiment evaluated the impact of the selected biochar on the surface charge of oil palm plantation soil, applying biochar at five different doses (0, 20, 40, 60, and 80 tons ha-¹). The potential temperature of 200 °C in slow pyrolysis had a significant effect on the quality of biochar from OPEFB with a yield ratio of 27.84% char; proximate (91.95% volatile matter and 0.81% fixed carbon), cation exchange capacity (CEC) [167.73 cmol(+) kg-1], and macro and micronutrients (e.g., C, N, P, K, Ca, Si, Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mn). The potential of O-H, N-H, C-H, and C=O functional groups of biochar from OPEFB for nutrient availability and absorption efficiency proven by the effect of 40 tons ha-1 biochar from OPEFB which significantly increased 80% of soil surface charge [pH by 0.80; organic matter (OM) composition by 19.8%, CEC by 11 cmol(+) kg-1] and nutrients [0.93% C; 0.04% N; 17.57 ppm P2O5; 0.65 cmol(+) kg-1 K] on Inceptisols
Social Environmental Support in Encouraging Entrepreneurial Behavior of Millennial Farmers in the Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia: An Effort to Realize Sustainable Agriculture
Full text linkSustainable agriculture offers new hope in overcoming the challenges of the decreasing interest of the younger generation in the agricultural sector. Millennial farmers, as part of this younger generation, are the key to successfully implementing sustainable agricultural development. This study aims to explore the influence of the role of parents, friends, extension workers, and media exposure on the entrepreneurial behavior of millennial farmers, and to explore the influence of entrepreneurial behavior on the financial performance of millennial farmers. The research was conducted in the Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia, which was the first province to inaugurate 1,000 millennial farmers. The research sample consisted of 200 millennial farmers, selected using a simple random sampling method. The analysis employed Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The results reveal that the role of parents does not significantly influence millennial farmers’ entrepreneurial behavior. The role of friends, agricultural extension workers, and media exposure significantly influence millennial farmers’ entrepreneurial behavior. Friends provide motivation, support, and share information. Agricultural extension workers offer knowledge transfer, technology, and programs from the government. Media exposure contributes by providing knowledge and shaping perceptions and behavior. Entrepreneurial behavior has a positive and significant influence on financial performance. The research results impact millennial farmers’ regional commissariat/farmer groups, the extension services by agricultural extension workers, and the media for millennial farmers. It is recommended that policies be implemented to strengthen the role of the regional commissariat of millennial farmers/farmer groups, improve extension services, and develop media relevant to millennial farmers
Assessing Land Use Intensity and Ecosystem Service Dynamics in Citarum Watershed, Indonesia
Full text linkChanges in land use and land cover (LULC) significantly impact ecosystem services (ES), often leading to land degradation and disrupting natural balance. This study examines how LULC changes have influenced total ecosystem services (TES) in Citarum Watershed over the past decade. Specifically, researchers analyze (1) the shifts in LULC and key ES components—water yield (WY), soil conservation (SC), and carbon storage (CS)—from 2010 to 2020, (2) the spatial relationship between land use intensity (LUI) and ES, and (3) the synchronization and distribution patterns of LUI and TES using a coupling coordination degree (CCD) model. The findings reveal significant LULC changes between 2010 and 2020, with bare/shrubland and agricultural areas expanding by 88.37% and 2.25%, while forest land and lakes declined by 0.78% and 0.09%. These transformations affected ES values, as WY and CS decreased by 15.01% and 4.98%, whereas SC increased by 12.03%. Overall, TES declined by 7.54%, with the steepest reduction (17.70%) observed in the downstream region. The coupling coordination analysis highlights an imbalance between LUI and TES, with 65 to 68% of sub-districts classified as imbalanced. These results underscore the urgent need for integrated land-use planning strategies to restore ecosystem balance and promote sustainability in Citarum Watershed
Evaluating Agricultural Sustainability in Permaculture Farms: A Multidimensional Approach for Resilient Farming Systems
Full text linkMorocco’s agriculture is increasingly constrained by climate change, water scarcity, and soil degradation, limiting the effectiveness of conventional farming. Permaculture offers a promising alternative, yet its sustainability in the Moroccan context remains underexplored. This study evaluates the multidimensional sustainability of permaculture farms and identifies key constraints to their resilience, assessing 20 farms in the commune of Brachoua using the IDEA (Indicators of Sustainability of Agricultural Farms) framework, adapted to local conditions through expert and farmer consultation. Scores were calculated across agroecological, socio-territorial, and economic dimensions. Farm typologies were identified using principal component analysis (PCA), with adequacy confirmed by eigenvalues, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO), and Bartlett’s test, and hierarchical ascending classification (HAC), validated by dendrogram structure and silhouette index. Results show strong agroecological performance (65.1±8.51 points), moderate economic sustainability (61.0±13.53), and weak socio-territorial integration (41.1±12.19). PCA revealed two main axes explaining 85.4% of variance, while HAC distinguished two farm clusters: a small group of high-performing farms with stronger socio-territorial and economic linkages, and a majority cluster with average but uniform profiles. Weaknesses include limited livestock diversity, poor soil and water management, lack of product traceability, and weak community participation. The study concludes that while permaculture supports ecological sustainability and financial independence, socio-territorial deficiencies remain the main barrier. Targeted interventions (farmer training, cooperative development, and quality certification) are needed to improve outcomes. More broadly, the study shows the usefulness of combining IDEA with multivariate statistics to generate farm typologies, offering a transferable framework for assessing sustainability in smallholder systems facing climatic and resource challenges
Network Governance of Rural Water Management to Cope with Adverse Impacts of Climate Change: Evidence from An Irrigated Dry Area in Central Java, Indonesia
Full text linkIrrigation management in Indonesia has always involved challenges. There are at least three phases in irrigation management: the rain-fed phase, technical irrigation in irrigation buildings, and technical irrigation to mitigate climate change (CC). This study investigated irrigation management based on local wisdom as a form of CC adaptation. The research was conducted in Klambu Kanan Irrigation District (KKID), where 11,005 ha of rice fields are irrigated in three regencies. The subjects of this research were 40 irrigation Water User Associations (WUAs), and the research instrument was a model that provided incentives to manage WUAs, cropping patterns, and water fees in response to CC. The results showed that CC has had impacts on rice fields in the KKID, such as mud flooding due to changes in land cover. There are two models employed by the WUAs: a “self-governance model” (SGM) and an “auction model” (AM), the latter of which is a form of management based on “network governance” (NG). The SGM emphasizes the participation of members (community-based) through social capital, while the AM emphasizes the availability of capital in irrigation management (provider-based). More than 77% of WUAs employed the SGM, while the rest employed the AM. In addition, the SGM was utilized for 180 more days per year than the AM, which was used for 47 days per year. Finally, the productivity of the SGM was higher than that of AM. Further research is needed to compare SGM and AM to confirm that SGM is more widely applied than AM
The Efficiency of Cokriging Spatial Interpolation to Estimate the Electrical Conductivity of Saturated Paste Extract (ECₑ) Using Soil to Water Ratios
Full text linkAccurate assessment of soil salinity is essential for managing salt-affected soils and sustaining agricultural productivity. This study evaluated the potential of cokriging spatial interpolation for estimating the electrical conductivity of saturated paste extract (ECₑ), using soil electrical conductivity (EC) measured at 1:2.5 and 1:5 soil-to-water ratios. The objectives included identifying suitable scatter plot and cross-variogram models and assessing mapping accuracy. A total of 300 topsoil samples (0 to 30 cm) were collected from three salt-affected soil classes in Muang Pia Sub-district, Khon Kaen Province, Northeastern Thailand. Spatial modelling and cross-variogram analyses were performed using GS+ software to evaluate estimation accuracy across different sample sizes. The results showed that EC measurements at a 1:5 ratio exhibited the strongest correlation with across all soil classes, with coefficient of determination (R2) values reaching 0.98 in Class 1 and Class 2, and 0.85 in Class 3, despite a minimum sample size (n = 25). Gaussian and spherical models best described these relationships. Higher R2 values were consistently associated with lower mean error (ME) and root mean square error (RMSE), in almost all sample sizes and classes, indicating the robustness and reliability of the model across varying salinity conditions. Larger sample sizes (n = 100) yielded more consistent estimation performance, while smaller sample sizes maintained acceptable accuracy, particularly for EC 1:5. This study indicates that soil EC water ratios, especially 1:5, can serve as practical surrogates for ECₑ estimation using cokriging spatial interpolation. The proposed approach offers a cost-effective solution for salinity mapping in salt-affected soil areas, with implications for soil monitoring, land management, and sustainable agriculture under limited sampling conditions
New Emerging and Comprehensive Land Mapping Unit at Detailed Scale: Integrating Random Forest Analysis and Remote Sensing Techniques for Sustainable Land Management
Full text linkPrecise and detailed land mapping is essential for sustainable land management, environmental conservation, and regional planning, especially in complex and diverse landscapes. This study aims to present an innovative framework for the development of Land Mapping Units (LMUs) at a detailed scale (1:20,000), through the integration of Random Forest (RF) analysis and high-resolution remote sensing data. This study was conducted in the South Malang Plateau, Indonesia (the area characterized by karst, tectonic, volcanic, and alluvial landforms) from June to December 2024. As part of the methodology, the study utilized a combination of geospatial data, including geological maps, DEM-derived topographical indices, and remote sensing indices (Normalized Difference Soil Index/NDSI, Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index/SAVI, Normalized Difference Water Index/NDWI, Modified Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index/MSAVI). A total of 10,903 field observation points were analyzed, with 70% used for model training and 30% for validation. The results show that RF-based LMUs achieved R2 of 0.93 and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) of 0.645, which is reliable to use. The LMUs provide a comprehensive understanding of landform-specific characteristics, including soil fertility linked to parent material, erosion sensitivity, and slope variability. These insights support applications in precision agriculture, disaster mitigation, and environmental planning. Moreover, the result can guide informed decision-making to prioritize sustainable land management that effectively prevents land degradation in the South Malang Plateau region, as stated in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The study demonstrates the potential of combining machine learning and remote sensing to refine spatial analysis and address the limitations of manual mapping methods. The proposed framework is scalable and adaptable to other diverse landscapes, making it a valuable tool for advancing sustainable land management in a rapidly changing world