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Avoiding the Problem: A study on the generalisation of avoidance behaviour
Get PDFAnxiety disorders are the most common mental health conditions worldwide, affecting over 61 million people in Europe alone. Since the COVID-19 pandemic, these numbers have risen, with a growing prevalence among younger individuals and children. Avoidance is a defining characteristic of all anxiety disorders, yet it has remained relatively understudied due to an overemphasis on fear mechanisms. However, recent years have seen a resurgence of research in this area. Studies suggest that avoidance is a strong predictor of treatment outcomes and may be the missing link in improving current therapeutic approaches. Understanding avoidance behaviour can provide valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms of anxiety. One prominent notion in the literature is that anxiety may stem from the overgeneralisation of fear, that is when fear extends beyond the original threat to similar stimuli. This is a well-documented phenomenon, with research consistently showing that individuals with high trait anxiety or anxiety disorders exhibit heightened fear generalisation. It has been proposed that avoidance behaviour may function similarly, leading individuals to avoid situations and stimuli resembling the original fear-inducing experience. While research indicates that fear and avoidance are distinct processes, studying generalisation in avoidance behaviour is essential for a more comprehensive understanding of anxiety and its treatment.
The goal of this thesis was to understand different aspects of avoidance behaviour with a focus on generalisation. We developed tasks to study avoidance behaviour both online and within the laboratory, so that a range of experiments could be conducted with different populations. Strictly speaking, we assessed different sources of generalisation of avoidance behaviour, by manipulating warning signals, stress, safety signals, and the context. Chapter 1 gives an introduction and literature review of research within anxiety, avoidance and generalisation. This gives an overview of current research and highlights the gaps within the field. In addition, Chapter 5 presents a review on relief and the role that signals associated with it play in avoidance behaviour. This also links with the safety signals aspect of the thesis.
Chapter 2 assessed whether the contiguity between the warning signals and an aversive outcome can influence the shape of the generalisation gradient. The hypothesis based on previous literature was that a trace procedure would result in a broader generalisation gradient relative to a delay procedure. Interestingly, for individual differences in trait anxiety, the immediate (delay) condition was more sensitive to detecting differences based on trait anxiety levels compared to the trace group. Chapter 3 assessed whether perceived or induced stress have an effect on the generalisation of avoidance behaviour. These experiments found that neither perceived nor induced stress influence the generalisation of avoidance. Chapter 4 revealed that age can influence the shape of a gradient using a Space Invaders avoidance task in children. This was one of the first experiments assessing avoidance generalisation in children aged 5-11 years old. Chapter 6 investigated safety signals and the concept of relief. These experiments showed first that safety signals reinforce avoidance behaviour. In addition, such reinforcement can generalise to similar safety signals, but not to dissimilar signals. This was the first study to investigate the reinforcing properties of safety signals within humans. Finally, Chapter 7 investigated the generalisation of avoidance behaviour to variations in contextual cues (background colour) and documented a systematic relationship between avoidance behaviour and the similarity of testing to training contexts. Across experiments, there were no meaningful relationships between the generalisation (in its different forms) of avoidance behaviour and participant’s trait anxiety levels. Overall, this thesis demonstrates that different factors can influence avoidance behaviour in terms of warning signals, safety signals and the context. Together, these results provide insights into the underlying mechanisms of avoidance behaviour and sheds light on the potential effects of individual differences such as stress and anxiety. The findings of this thesis provide a much need understanding on the factors that affect generalisation of avoidance behaviour in humans. This knowledge could potentially assist clinicians when developing treatments and interventions that include avoidance as well as fear
Coupled oxidative ageing and mechanical multiphysics modelling of asphalt pavements
No full textPredicting the long-term pavement performance is one of the most significant challenges in pavement engineering, as it is closely related to pavement design strategies and maintenance decision-making. Pavement oxidative ageing must be considered in the long-term performance prediction, as it predominantly influences the viscoelastic properties and damaging behaviours of road materials throughout their life cycles. To couple the oxidative ageing into the long-term pavement performance predictions, a Multiphysics finite element (FE) modelling framework is developed in this thesis to fundamentally investigate and model the interplay between pavement ageing and performance prediction.
First, a Multiphysics pavement ageing model was developed and validated using measured pavement temperature profiles and ageing products. This model generates variables (temperature and index of carbonyl functional group) that lead to changes in material properties. Second, a time-temperature-ageing shift model was proposed based on free volume theory and validated using the modulus master curves of laboratory-aged materials and the modulus evolution of field asphalt cores. This model links the ageing model with the subsequent mechanical model by producing an intermediate variable, namely, a time-temperature-ageing shift factor. Third, a viscoelastic-continuum damage model under cyclic loading was developed and validated using the strain responses from cyclic indirect tensile (IDT) fatigue tests. This model serves as the material constitutive model for asphalt concrete. Fourth, a temporal homogenisation-based high cycle fatigue model was developed and validated by comparing the model predictions with the traditional cycle-by-cycle simulation results. This model is employed to accelerate the prediction of the pavement performance under long-term loading cycles. Finally, the models described above were integrated into a pavement structural model to investigate how oxidative ageing affects the long-term pavement performance.
Results indicate that the pavement ageing model can capture the spatial distributions and temporal evolutions of temperature profiles and ageing products, effectively reflecting the influence of bitumen ageing sensitivity and asphalt concrete air void content on pavement ageing gradients and evolutions. The time-temperature-ageing shift model simultaneously accounts for the effects of temperature and ageing on the viscoelastic property changes of bituminous materials, serving as a coupling tool between the pavement ageing and mechanical models within the FE modelling of the pavement responses and performance. The developed viscoelastic-continuum damage model for asphalt concrete under cyclic loading can predict the responses and performance at both non-destructive and destructive loadings, successfully identifying the critical numbers of load cycles for the onset of final stage damage evolution. The high cycle fatigue model provides accurate predictions of pavement response and damage conditions with an acceptable computational time (25 min), compared with traditional cycle-by-cycle simulations (209 min).
Pavement oxidative ageing increases the modulus of asphalt concrete and reduces the strain response at the bottom of asphalt layer, which has been validated by the falling weight deflectometer (FWD) measurements at different pavement service years. A modulus gradient along the pavement depth is introduced by the pavement oxidative ageing, leading to the localisation of high stress regions at the road surface. After 16 years of field ageing, more than 50% additional damage would occur at the road surface comparing to the unaged scenario, and the extra damage mainly localises at the edge of the loading area. The pavement remaining fatigue life is reduced by up to 1.6 years due to oxidative ageing in the case study of this thesis, and the top-down cracking is more likely to develop because of the pavement ageing gradient
Methodology for selection of optimal satellite constellation for precise GNSS positioning
Get PDFContinuous advancements in GNSS systems, apart from the broadly used GPS, have led to the development of other satellite systems (Galileo, BeiDou, GLONASS), which have significantly increased the number of available satellites for GNSS positioning applications. However, GNSS satellites’ redundancy and potential poor GNSS satellite signals can negatively affect the GNSS’s positioning speed and accuracy. On the other hand, selecting high-quality GNSS satellite signals by retaining a sufficient number of GNSS satellites can enhance the GNSS’s positioning performance. Various methods have been applied for satellite selection. However, the selected satellites via these methods could be insufficient for precise positioning. These methods were designed to select satellites for Single Point Positioning (SPP) solution with meters level accuracy. This is because these satellite selection methods only consider SPP factors. To choose satellites for precise positioning, new satellite selection method was developed considering Precise Point Positioning (PPP) factors. Various satellite selection methods were investigated and assessed to developed new satellite selection method that fit PPP- satellite selection. To test the performance of the new satellite selection method, several experiments have been conducted. Satellites were selected for various PPP applications: i) static open-sky, ii) kinematic open-sky, and iii) static at multipath conditions. In addition, satellites were selected in all possible subset sizes, i.e., they were selected in subsets with all possible numbers of satellites. According to experiment results, the efficiency of the new satellite selection method was excellent at low multipath environment regardless of PPP modes: static or kinematic. The positioning accuracy of original PPP, using all satellites, was achieved by multiple sizes of selected satellite subsets by the selection method. It was also obtained by selected satellites with different subset sizes. In terms of high multipath environments, the performance of the satellite selection method was less effective. The positioning accuracy of the original PPP was not achieved by the selected satellite subsets although they provided positioning accuracy close to the original PPP with a few satellites. This achievement is quite promising although the new satellite selection method needs further improvement
Enabling methods for predictive digital twin in pavement performance modelling
Get PDFRoads are vital assets and the backbone for any transportation system and support societal development by providing the foundation for constant mobility of goods and people. However, pavements are experiencing accelerated deterioration in most developed countries due to increased traffic volume and load, combined with rapidly changing climate. The existing reactive road asset management approach cannot keep up with the rate of pavement degradation, due to lack of condition data from infrequent inspection surveys and simple models that do not consider the factors influencing pavement performance holistically.
Digital twins have been popularly utilised in recent years enabled by the increasing capacity in data collection using intelligent sensors, digital innovations with technologies such as internet of things, cloud computing, big data analytics with machine learning, as well as artificial intelligence. Despite the growing interest in applications of digital twins in the built environment such as bridges and buildings, current digital twin research related to roads is still at an early stage.
To this end, this study investigates the development of digital twins for the road sector. Based on the literature, a digital twin-based decision-making support theoretical framework for road lifecycle is presented and discussed. In particular, two case studies, as applications of this framework, are conducted to demonstrate the impact of predictive digital twins on roads in the areas of pavement performance and data collection. As part of the road digital twin framework, it is found that integrating physics-based simulation with machine learning, decreased the root mean squared error by at least 25% compared to traditional machine learning in one year prediction, and reduced the 90th percentile range in multi-year predictions by as much as over 30%. In addition, this research also identifies that a substantial amount (approx. over 95%) of sensor data collected could be reduced while achieving acceptable prediction accuracy, thereby minimising the data related costs within the same framework. The findings are useful for the understanding and consideration of the on-going road digital twin development
Icing simulation and ice pattern formation based on a phase-field method
No full textA phase-field model for three-phase flows with cylindrical/spherical interfaces is established by combining the Navier-Stokes (NS), the continuity, and the energy equations, with an explicit form of curvature-dependent modified Allen-Cahn (AC) and Cahn-Hilliard (CH) equations. These modified equations are proposed to solve the inconsistency of the phase-field method between flat and curved interfaces, which can result in “phase-vanishing” problems and the break of mass conservation during the phase-changing process. It is proved that the proposed model satisfies the energy dissipation law (energy stability).
Next, the icing process with three phases, i.e., air, water, and ice, is simulated on the surface of a cylinder and a sphere, respectively. It is demonstrated that the modification of the AC and CH equations remedies the inconsistency between flat and curved interfaces and the corresponding “phase-vanishing” problem. The evolution of the curved water-air and water-ice interfaces is simultaneously captured, while the volume expansion during solidification, due to the density difference between water and ice, is also monitored.
A two-dimensional icing case with bubbles is further simulated. The deformation of bubbles, as well as the evolution of the interfaces, effectively illustrate the complex interactions between different phases in the icing process with phase changes. Particularly, in the simulation of icing, the pointed tip of the icy droplet is obtained and analyzed. The influence of the temperature of the supercooled substrate and the ambient air on the droplet freezing process is studied. The results indicate that the formation of the droplet pointed tip is primarily due to the expansion in the vertical direction during the freezing process. Lower substrate temperatures can accelerate this process. Changes in air temperature have a relatively minor impact on the freezing process, mainly affecting its early stages. Moreover, the results demonstrate that the ice front transitions from an approximately horizontal shape to a concave one.
A linear stability model based on the phase-field method is further established to study the formation of ripples on the ice surface. The pattern on horizontal ice surfaces, e.g., glaciers and frozen lakes, is found to be originating from a gravity-driven instability by studying ice-water-air flows with a range of water and ice thicknesses. The results demonstrate that contrary to gravity, surface tension and viscosity act to suppress the instability. A larger value of either water thickness or ice thickness corresponds to a longer dominant wavelength of the pattern, and a favourable wavelength of 90 mm and a ratio between the maximum and minimum wavelengths of 2.86 are predicted, in agreement with observations from nature. Furthermore, the profiles of the most unstable perturbations are found to be with two peaks at the ice-water and the water-air interfaces whose ratio decreases exponentially with the water thickness and wavenumber. The linear stability theory is also applied to interpret the ripple on the icicles. The results demonstrate that an increased water flow rate corresponds to ripples with larger wavelengths, while a larger icicle radius tends to induce shorter wavelengths
RenNers: Design and evaluation of a nurses’ training model in management of early-stage chronic kidney disease in Indonesia
No full textEarly detection and effective management of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in at-risk populations significantly reduces the progression to end-stage kidney failure. Unfortunately, Indonesia, a lower-middle-income nation, has relatively few initiatives focused on early-stage CKD management, with most treatments directed towards advanced stages of the disease. While early CKD management strategies have shown to be successful elsewhere, simply transferring these approaches to Indonesia is not feasible; adaptations are necessary to ensure interventions align with the local culture and address the challenges posed by limited healthcare capacity, including a scarcity of nephrologists.
In the Indonesian context, enhancing the role of nurses in educating patients on self-management of early-stage CKD is a promising strategy to slow the progression to advanced stages of the disease. However, many nurses working with CKD patients possess limited knowledge of the condition and lack formal training, particularly in early-stage management. Consequently, continuing education is crucial for nurses to acquire the necessary skills to effectively optimise their role in CKD care and enhance patient quality of life. There is an urgent need to develop a tailored training model that addresses nurses’ educational requirements while considering potential barriers to participation, such as their existing workload.
This research seeks to bridge the theory-practice gap in delivering modern CKD care in Indonesia by developing the RenNers blended training programme and conducting a thorough assessment of its feasibility and acceptability for the studied context. A systematic approach was employed to design, implement, and evaluate the training programme using the ADDIE model. The implementation and evaluation phases have been successfully carried out through a pilot study, which has provided valuable insights into the programme’s acceptability among general nurses at two hospitals in Indonesia.
This study makes several important contributions to nephrology care and the nursing profession in Indonesia. The primary contribution is the development of the RenNers blended training programme, which is firmly based on insights gathered from a comprehensive scoping review of existing research on blended learning in long-term care management and semi-structured interviews with 33 key stakeholders involved in CKD care. These interviews revealed a strong desire among nurses, nephrologist experts, and patients for nurses to enhance their knowledge in the CKD field. Additionally, a series of expert panel reviews, which informed the design and development of the RenNers training programme, emphasised the principle of co-creation to ensure the training package is relevant for nurses in Indonesia.
RenNers was piloted with a clinical nurse sample, and the results indicated that participants were extremely satisfied with the overall training. The blended learning approach effectively accommodated their busy schedules, and beyond improving their confidence and knowledge in CKD care management, participants expressed a growing interest in evidence-based practice, which may enhance their overall work performance. This positive feedback strongly suggests that the RenNers training shows great promise and is well-suited for future large-scale randomized controlled trials. Recommendations for programme enhancement included integrating supplementary training activities and addressing specific technical challenges related to the learning platform and internet connectivity issues.
Furthermore, the findings from this research hold the potential to motivate policymakers and hospital administrators to endorse digital transformation initiatives aimed at the ongoing professional development of healthcare professionals in Indonesia and also contributing to the maturation and development of the national learning platform launched in 2024, which remains largely underutilised nationwide at the current juncture. The RenNers training programme, meticulously crafted through a systematic and rigorous process that engaged a diverse array of stakeholders, including patients themselves, can serve as an exemplary model for developing additional healthcare-related training initiatives. Establishing a well-structured training programme that addresses the concurrent needs of patients is essential for enhancing the quality of healthcare services in Indonesia
Risk, discretion and stigma: a multi-level analysis of UK universities’ admissions policies and practices for people with a criminal record
No full textIn the United Kingdom, there has been a rising interest in information pertaining to citizens’ criminal history, coupled with a lack of legal protection from discrimination for people with an unspent criminal record. This has paved the way for scholarship exploring the ‘collateral consequences’ of a criminal record. Yet beyond the field of employment, there is limited empirical evidence about the impact of a criminal record on access to civic opportunities. Using a mixed-method qualitative research design, this thesis investigates the impact of a criminal record on access to higher education in the United Kingdom. The findings are analysed using a multi-level conceptual framework, drawing on literature related to ‘risk’, ‘responsibilisation’, discretionary decision-making and stigma.
An analysis of 143 UK universities’ admissions policies uncovers how 103 institutions require applicants to disclose information about their unspent criminal record, sometimes along with information about allegations or ongoing investigations, to enrol on a non-regulated degree. Once a disclosure has been made, universities can withdraw an applicant’s offer to study or restrict their access to university services. An analysis of data from an email correspondence study including 18 universities and semi-structured interviews with ten university admissions staff, illustrates how admissions staff act as ‘street level bureaucrats’, by making discretionary decisions about an applicant’s admission. In the absence of training or organisational guidelines, employees appear to borrow criminal justice logics, assessing applicants’ ‘risk’ and ‘remorse’ to determine their suitability to enrol on a degree. Interviews with 13 applicants with a criminal record, provide an insight into the experiences of navigating higher education bureaucracy with a criminal record and uncover the powerful role universities have in producing and reproducing criminal record stigma.
The discrimination towards applicants with a criminal record in the higher education sector is often justified through logics that see ‘identifying’ and ‘managing’ applicants with a criminal record as an effective way to protect the public and the institution’s reputation. Whilst not denying that universities do have an important role to ensure that staff and students can work and study in a safe environment, this thesis argues that excluding or restricting access for applicants with a criminal record is an ineffective and disproportionate strategy to achieve this aim. Consequently, this thesis recommends future research looks to establish how universities can adopt a whole institution approach to safeguarding, to move away from practices that seek to limit access to education for criminalised people. This should be coupled with research that explores how the United Kingdom can effectively reform legislation, to ensure people with convictions are afforded greater protection from discrimination in civic life
Investigating the regulation of DNA and RNA modifications in neurocognitive diseases
No full textDementia is a leading cause of disability in the elderly, with over 55 million people diagnosed worldwide as of 2019. Neurodegenerative dementias result from the progressive and irreversible degeneration of neurons. Epigenetic and epitranscriptomic processes regulate transcriptional and translational activities, mediating gene expression and environmental influences on cell physiology. Such processes are tissue and cell-type specific, change during cellular differentiation and ageing, and are increasingly relevant in understanding disease-modifying mechanisms. Chemical modifications on DNA and RNA, such as methylations, are governed by three families of effector proteins known as writers, readers and erasers. The expression of these DNA and RNA modifications and their effector proteins across brain regions and within cellular environments significantly impacts transcription and translation activities, leading to disease.
This thesis investigated epigenomic and epitranscriptional modifications and their regulatory mechanisms in human brain and the roles they play in neurocognitive diseases. Using RNA sequencing data from brain tissue of individuals with Alzheimer's Disease (AD), Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI), and healthy aged controls, I first examined the expression profiles of 5-methylcytosine DNA (5mC) and RNA (m5C) effector proteins across four brain regions. The expression profiles were further compared between neuropathological Braak and CERAD scores. I found that DNA methylation writers DNMT1, DNMT3A and DNMT3B were increased, while the reader UHRF1 was decreased in AD samples across three brain regions. Changes in abundance were also noted for DNA erasers GADD45B and AICDA across neuropathological load groupings. Additionally, RNA methyltransferases NSUN6 and NSUN7 presented changes in abundance across three brain regions between AD and controls, and along with the reader ALYREF, significant changes were registered between neuropathological groupings. A history of TBI was associated with a significant increase in the DNA readers ZBTB4 and MeCP2 and a decrease in NSUN6.
In subsequent chapters, and through fluorescence immunohistochemistry, I assessed the abundance and distribution of novel RNA m3C modification and m5C methyltransferase NSUN5 across neuronal and non-neuronal cell populations and subcellular compartments in human brain tissue from individuals with Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI), AD, and Lewy Body Diseases (LBD), compared to healthy aged controls. Within the hippocampus, I located m3C RNAs within mitochondria and at postsynaptic sites in healthy aged brain tissue and found increased abundance in neuronal cells compared to non-neuronal cells, particularly in the CA2-3 subregions. I also revealed significantly increased total, mitochondrial-specific, and synaptic-specific m3C across MCI, and LBD compared to controls in all hippocampal regions except the dentate gyrus (DG), where healthy aged tissue had higher synaptic m3C levels than diseased tissue. Similarly, NSUN5’s distribution across the middle frontal gyrus confirmed a cytoplasmic location and uncovered its presence within mitochondria, particularly at mitoribosomes. NSUN5 was more abundant in pyramidal cells compared to interneurons or glial cells, and I observed a decrease in mitochondrial NSUN5 in pyramidal cells of disease tissue across all cortical layers, and an increase in interneurons and glial cells in cortical layer I.
In addition, I performed bisulfite-treated RNA sequencing to investigate m5C RNA modification within human brain. Overall, these findings provide evidence of the regulation of protein pathways disrupted in neurocognitive diseases via multiple pre- and post-transcriptional mechanisms. This study further suggests a novel mitochondrial and synaptic target for RNA m3C modification and identifies RNA methyltransferase NSUN5 as a potential m5C mitoribosomal writer. These insights could pave the way for new therapeutic strategies targeting mitochondrial RNA modifications to treat neurocognitive diseases
The effects of a short-term (1-week) very low-calorie diet (850 calories) comparing low and normal protein content on cardiometabolic outcomes, glucose metabolism and autophagy
No full textBackground and Aims. Dietary restriction in healthy adults has been shown to promote cardiometabolic health and autophagy; the degradation and recycling of damaged and dysfunctional cytoplasmic contents. Low protein diets may further stimulate autophagy through mTOR inhibition mediated by low amino acid availability. This project aims to investigate the effects of a 7-day nutritional intervention in healthy humans using very low-calorie (VLCD), fasting-mimicking plant-based diets with low and high protein content on cardiometabolic outcomes, body composition, molecular markers of autophagy and ER-stress, and gut microbiome health.
Methods. Forty five healthy males and females were randomly stratified to 1 of 3 groups: Control (Isoenergetic diet); Low Protein VLCD (850 Calories per day: 10% protein); High Protein VLCD (850 Calories per day: 30% protein). Participants provided fasted blood, urine, and stool samples, had a Dual Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry (DEXA) body composition scan, and underwent functional tests of cardiovascular health before and after the 7-day intervention, allowing a comparison of low and high dietary protein content on key outcomes.
Results. Both low and high protein VLCDs reduced fasting plasma glucose and IGF-1, and induced ketogenesis. The high protein diet did not appear to inhibit the induction of autophagy or promote excessive ER- stress responses at the molecular level. Both VLCD diets reduced body weight and fat mass, with low protein selectively reducing subcutaneous fat mass and high protein selectively reducing visceral fat mass. Lastly, gut microbiome diversity and circulating triglycerides and fatty acids were improved by the high protein VLCD only.
Conclusions. These findings expand previous work displaying the benefits of a low protein VLCD on cardiometabolic health and autophagy in healthy adults and provide novel potential benefits of a high protein VLCD that would allow tailoring it to an individual’s health needs and preferences
Climate change mitigation: learning from the past to unlock the hydropower potential of the Derbyshire Derwent catchment
Get PDFFor Derbyshire communities seeking climate change mitigation opportunities, the hydropower (HEP) potential of the historic water-powered textile mills of the Derwent Valley Mills World Heritage Site (DVMWHS) is an obvious starting point. Waterpower is a core story of the DVMWHS, in the heart of the Derbyshire Derwent catchment (DDC), but there is limited understanding of how the early industrial watermill owners overcame the natural and man-made challenges they faced, many similar to those faced today. This research aims to improve our understanding of the harnessing, management and use of waterpower, particularly during the Georgian period, to identify what lessons we can learn to repower the remaining HEP opportunities on revitalised DDC waterways, supporting our climate change mitigation efforts.
DDC waterpower sites, by waterway, were identified using historic OS maps and a gazetteer produced. Individual watermill timelines were produced, capturing each mill’s use, power and water management development. The gazetteer included historic mills, non-mills (e.g. Chatsworth House) and man-made water sources for power (e.g. lead mine drainage soughs). External factors were also considered, capturing the wider impacts of political, economic and legislative changes on ‘milling power’ over time.
Historically, government support has been critical for waterpower, with parliament repeatedly listening to the industrial watermill owners, protecting their milling power, including in the Salmon Fishery Act (1861). However, run-of-river (small) HEP collapsed in the 1950s-70s, with the government focussed on building the fossil-fuelled electricity grid, and the newly formed water authorities charging the mills for ‘borrowing’ water for power. From the 1990s, the climate change driven need for renewable energy saw a mini revival in small HEP, but the ending of government subsides supporting small, local, renewable energy in 2019, paused this.
This research uncovered the millowners’ wider influence on river stewardship, using the mills’ weirs, floodgates and sluices to control the waterways, including flood management, maintaining fisheries and river morphology, issues critical to HEP development today. Following the closure of run-of-river HEP from the 1950s, many weirs, floodgates and sluices were no longer used or maintained, and today are viewed as redundant barriers by river ecologists. Much of this infrastructure remains, providing historic watermill sites with an opportunity to be repurposed as green power stations, and to play a role in current river stewardship challenges, as they did in the past
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