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A Folkloristic Essay on Natural Disasters : Risks and Benefits : Counterintuitive Logic Observed in Historical and Traditional Facts
Get PDFapplication/pdf本論文は以下の4つについての調査分析をふまえたものである。⑴ 和歌山県紀ノ川流域などのいわゆる流葬を伴う両墓制，つまり大きな河川の岸辺や中洲に埋葬墓地が設けられ，大雨や河川の氾濫によって蓄積した遺体が墓地ごと流されてしまうような事例の存在，⑵ 大山喬平や網野善彦たち以来の研究蓄積のある平安京と鴨川の河原をめぐる歴史，つまり洪水と氾濫の危険な場所でありながらも同時に葬送地とも繁華街ともなってきたという歴史，⑶ その鴨川上流に位置する京都市の北部山間の村々では鴨川水系にありながら，京都御所で使われる水を汚穢してはならないという厳しい規範のもとにその墓地が分水嶺を越えて設営されてきたという歴史と民俗，⑷ 広島県の太田川上流に位置し河川の氾濫が頻繁におこってきた町場の中洲の利用の歴史と民俗，である。以上の作業によって指摘できた主な論点は以下の4点である。第1に，自然災害の危険と経済的魅力という相矛盾しながらも継続し続ける相互関係が存在するということ，そしてその強い伝承力の存在である。第2に，生活上の必然である汚穢の蓄積を，氾濫と洪水という自然災害が周期的に掃除し浄化して生活世界を新たにリセットするという逆利用の発想が存在するということ，そしてその強い伝承力の存在である。第3に，鴨川をめぐる淨穢観念の民俗伝承には古代の平安京以来の歴史の投影をみることができるということ，たとえば死穢忌避観念と獣肉獣血感覚の変遷など生活文化変遷の歴史は地域ごとに事例ごとにまた階層ごとにそれぞれ時差を含みながら立体的な歴史変遷をたどるという事実である。第4に，河川の洪水や氾濫の災害をめぐる諸事例の共通の特徴は，災害を受けても再び同じ場所に復帰していく，その繰り返しという営為にある。災害被害はできるだけ事前に予防して悲劇を繰り返さないようにする，というのが「常識」である。しかし，人間の生活欲，利潤追及への欲望や，死穢忌避の観念や汚濁処理の感覚的世界においては，その「常識」が通用しない事例が歴史的に存在してきている。この民俗学の災害論は，災害を負の側面から論じる「常識」の視点をいったん差し置いてみて，危険覚悟の上で展開する活発な経済活動と，河川の氾濫や洪水などの自然災害を逆利用する発想が存在するという伝承事実に注目したものである。つまり，「防災」だけではなく「対災」という伝承的な営みへの注目である。This paper is based on the following four studies: (1) a study of the so-called riverside double grave system in the Kinokawa River Basin in Wakayama Prefecture (these graves are located on the banks and sandbars of major rivers so that the graves and bodies can be washed away by heavy rains or floods); (2) a study of the history of Heian-kyō and the Kamogawa River shores, which, as Kyōhei Ōyama, Yoshihiko Amino, and others have argued, flourished as a commercial district as well as a funeral place despite their vulnerability to floods; (3) a study of the history and folk customs of mountain villages upstream of the Kamogawa River in the north of Kyoto (the villagers' graves have been built outside the watershed boundaries of the Kamogawa River Basin because of the strict restrictions placed on them to prevent impurity in the river, which had also been used by the Kyoto Imperial Palace since old times); and (4) a study of the history and folk customs of a town upstream of the Ōtagawa River in Hiroshima Prefecture, where sandbars were actively used despite their susceptibility to floods. The results of these studies indicate the following four findings: (1) there are attractive and repulsive interactions between natural disaster risks and economic benefits, and these relationships have been passed on; (2) a counterintuitive idea has developed that the inevitable impurities accumulated in the course of daily life can be periodically cleaned and washed away by natural disasters, such as floods, so as to refresh the living environment, and these customs have been passed on; (3) the traditional concept of purification of the Kamogawa River seems to have been affected by the long history of the area dating back to the Heian period, and lifestyle and cultural customs, such as the concept of the impurity of death and the sense of animal meat and blood, have changed at different times and in different ways in each region, in each case, and in each social class throughout history; and (4) all these places susceptible to river floods share the common characteristic of attracting people to come back to live there repeatedly after such disasters. From a “common sense” perspective, all possible measures should be taken to proactively prevent natural disasters and stop tragedy from repeating itself. However, in history, this common sense is sometimes overridden by emotions and beliefs, such as people's desire for better lives, ambition to make money, the concept of the impurity of death, and belief in purification. By breaking the “common sense” assumption that natural disasters are bad, this study of disasters from the perspective of folklore focuses on the historical fact that economic activities were actively promoted in some areas despite their vulnerability to natural disasters and that even a counterintuitive idea developed that natural disasters, such as river floods, can be useful. In this study, attention is paid to the traditional custom of preventing as well as utilizing natural disasters.一部非公開情報ありdepartmental bulletin pape
The Regionalization in Production Technique of Backed-knives from the Central Japanese Archipelago and Their Background
Get PDFapplication/pdf本論では，日本列島中央部（愛鷹・箱根山麓，関東地方，中部高地）を対象に，ナイフ形石器製作技術と石材の利用状況を検討する。それにより，姶良Tn火山灰（以下AT）下位石器群における石器製作技術の地域化のあり方とその背景を明らかにする。
第一に，愛鷹・箱根山麓のAT下位石器群を対象に，ナイフ形石器の技術的特徴に注目し，出土層位を踏まえ4グループに区分した。そして，ナイフ形石器の調整技術とサイズおよび素材構成を観点に整理することで，時間的な4つの段階として捉えた。
第二に，¹⁴C年代および広域テフラとナイフ形石器製作技術を観点に，中部高地と関東地方の石器群を検討し，愛鷹・箱根山麓との編年対比を行なった。以上の検討により，日本列島中央部のAT下位石器群における編年（Ⅹ～Ⅵ層段階）を構築した。その結果，Ⅸ層段階は全地域で対比できたものの，Ⅹ・Ⅶ層段階に対比される石器群は中部高地には確認できず，Ⅵ層段階の愛鷹・箱根山麓のナイフ形石器製作技術は中部高地と関東地方の両方と異なることが明らかになった。
第三に，日本列島中央部における地域間の関係を明らかにするために，黒耀石利用の時期的変遷を検討した。結果，信州産黒耀石の供給地（中部高地）と消費地（関東地方，愛鷹・箱根山麓）という関係性，地域間のつながり，それらとナイフ形石器製作技術の結びつきを確認することができた。
最後に，ナイフ形石器製作技術の変遷と石材利用を総合的に検討した。それにより，列島中央部のAT下位石器群には石材利用の在地化（Ⅶ層段階）とナイフ形石器製作技術の地域化（Ⅵ層段階）がみとめられ，それらは時期にして一段階分のズレがあることがわかった。そして，この石材利用とナイフ形石器の画期の時間的なズレを，原料の地域化がきっかけとなり，ナイフ形石器製作技術が地域独自化するという列島中央部における石器製作技術の地域化の過程（人類の定着）として位置づけた。This paper discusses the regionalization observed in the lithic assemblages discovered below the AT volcanic ash and its background by examining the production techniques of backed-knives and the utilization of raw materials in the central Japanese archipelago (the Ashitaka/Hakone submontane area, the Kanto area, and the Chubu highland).
Firstly, the lithic assemblages discovered below the AT volcanic ash in the Ashitaka/Hakone submontane area were categorized into four groups according to the technological characteristics of backed-knives and the stratigraphic data. Considering the size variety, the retouching techniques, and the blank for backed-knives, these four groups are interpreted as four different chronological phases.
Secondly, the lithic assemblages from the Chubu highland and the Kanto area were examined in accordance with the production techniques of backed-knives, the ¹⁴C data, and the AT volcanic ash. They were then compared with four assemblage groups from the Ashitaka/Hakone submontane area chronologically. The examination resulted in establishing the chronology of lithic assemblages discovered below the AT volcanic ash (phases of Layer X-VI) in the central Japanese archipelago. The established chronology shows the presence of lithic assemblages from the phase of Layer IX in all areas and the absence of assemblages from the phases of Layer X and VII in the Chubu highland. It therefore reveals that the production techniques of backed-knives seen in the Ashitaka/Hakone submontane area during the phase of Layer VI are different from that of the Chubu highland and the Kanto area.
Thirdly, the transitions in the use of obsidian sources for each lithic assemblage were examined in order to discuss some possible interactions between each region. As a result, the relationship between the Chubu highland as the supply center of the Shinshu-originated obsidian and the rest of the regions as its consumers was identified, which leads to understanding both differences and similarities in the production techniques of backed-knives in each region.
Lastly, the transitions in the production techniques of backed-knives and the material utilization were examined comprehensively. As a result, it was revealed that the lithic assemblages from the phase of Layer VII show the consumption of local materials, while the assemblages from the phase of Layer VI present the regionalization in the production techniques of backed-knives. These phases are one chronological phase away from each other, and this temporal gap is interpreted as the process of regionalization in the production techniques of backed-knives that derives from the consumption of local lithic materials.departmental bulletin pape
A Study of Flood Control Administration and Civil Engineering Bureaucrats in the Transitional Period from Early Modern to Modern Times : The Department of Water Resources Management of the Shizuoka Domain and Other Relevant Organizations
Get PDFapplication/pdf江戸幕府において天領の治水行政を所轄したのは勘定奉行をトップとする勘定所であり、その配下として実地で防災・復興などの土木工事を担当したのが普請役という下級官吏であった。普請役には純粋に技術者だった者がいた半面、工事に従事する農民を管理・監督するだけの行政官だった者も混在していたと考えられる。
維新後、明治政府は治河使・土木司・土木寮・土木局といった担当部門を会計官・民部省・工部省・大蔵省・内務省などの下に位置づけ、治水を遂行するとともに、西洋からの新たな技術導入をはかった。新政府の直轄県で治水を担当した下級官吏の中には幕府時代に普請役だった者がおり、政権交代を経た後も現場レベルでは人的継続性が見られた。
七〇万石の一大名として存続した、江戸幕府の後身たる静岡藩では、領内に富士川・安倍川・大井川・天竜川という大河があったことから、藩政機構の中に水利路程掛（後に水利郡政掛・水利郡方掛と改称）を置き、治水に意を注いだ。ただし、実際に領内各地で展開された治水技術は、蛇籠・大聖牛・牛枠といった竹木石を材料とした伝統的な工法にとどまり、近世との大きな違いは見られなかった。その一方、同掛には幕府時代に勘定所に属した者や普請役など、古くからの民政部門の経験者が身を置いた一方、海軍士官として西洋の科学技術を学んだ人物が幹部に就任するなど、近代化への志向が見られた。
廃藩置県に前後して静岡藩の人材は明治政府に吸収されていったが、水利路程掛の出身者には中央省庁や府県において土木・治水行政を任された者もいた。また、同じ旧幕臣・静岡藩出身者としては、同藩の藩校沼津兵学校で身に付けた洋算・測量などを武器に土木寮の技師となり、お雇い外国人とともに仕事をしたような、より若い世代の一群の存在が生まれた。さらに、同校から工部大学校に進学し高等教育を受けた者の中からは、本格的な土木技術の専門家が輩出した。
伝統工法にもとづき幕府の治水行政を担当した者たちと幕末に西洋近代科学を学び取った幕府海軍士官たちは静岡藩で合流し、水利路程掛や沼津兵学校を経由して明治政府へと引き継がれ、世代交代や新陳代謝を繰り返しつつ、真に近代的な意味での治水行政の担当者たる土木官僚・土木技術者へとつながっていったのである。In the Edo Shogunate Government, the Kanjō-sho (Treasury Department), led by the Kanjō-bugyō (Chief Treasurer), was responsible for flood control administration in the shogunal demesnes. Under the control of the Department, the low-ranking government officials called Fushin-yaku were in charge of construction works for disaster prevention and rehabilitation. They seem to have consisted not only of engineers but also of administrative officials who only supervised farmers engaged in construction works.
After the Meiji Restoration, the Government of Japan set up departments in charge of civil engineering and construction, such as Chika-shi, Doboku-shi, Doboku-ryō, and Doboku-kyoku, under the supervision of the Kaikei-kan (Ministry of Accountant), Minbu-shō (Ministry of Public Affairs), Kōbu-shō (Ministry of Public Works), Ōkura-shō (Ministry of Finance), and Naimu-shō (Ministry of Home Affairs) to enhance flood control. Moreover, the Meiji Government strived to adopt new technologies from the West. In the meantime, some of the low-ranking government officials who had worked as Fushin-yaku in the Edo period continued to engage in flood control projects in prefectures under the direct control of the new Meiji Government, which indicates the retention of human resources at the field level even after the regime change.
The Shizuoka Domain, established for the ex-shogun who was demoted to a daimyo with revenues of 700,000 koku, set up the department of water resources management (originally named as Suiri-rotei-kakari, later renamed as Suiri-gunsei-kakari, and then renamed again as Suiri-koorikata-kakari) under the local government to enhance flood control since there were large rivers within the territory, such as the Fuji, Abe, Ōi, and Tenryū Rivers. Though in the domain, technocrats only built simple wood, bamboo and/or stone structures for flood prevention, such as those called jakago, daiseigyū, and ushiwaku, by using traditional techniques similar to those used in early modern times, and seem to have strived for modernization. This is also illustrated by the fact that the department of water resources management not only consisted of government officials who had engaged in public affairs for years under the Edo Shogunate Government, such as Fushin-yaku and other officials of the Kanjō-sho, but also hired as senior officials those who had learned Western scientific knowledge and skills to become naval officers.
Around at the time of haihan-chiken (the abolition of feudal domains and the establishment of prefectures), most officials of the Shizuoka Domain were assimilated into the Meiji Government. Some of those who had worked for the department of water resources management were appointed as civil engineering/flood control administrators at the central and prefectural governments. Meanwhile, among the ex-shogunate officials and the Shizuoka Government who had learned Western arithmetic knowledge and measurement skills in the Numazu Military Academy established by the Shizuoka Domain, some young officials served as engineers at the Doboku-ryō (Department of Civil Engineering), working with foreign specialists employed by the Government of Japan. Moreover, some of the students graduating from the academy and going on to the Imperial College of Engineering to further their education became professional civil engineers.
Thus, the shogunate flood control administrators equipped with traditional engineering techniques and the shogunate naval officers armed with modern Western scientific knowledge were merged together in the Shizuoka Domain. After working for the department of water resources management or studying in the Numazu Military Academy, they were assimilated into the Meiji Government. Then, despite the change of generations and the turnover of personnel, their knowledge and skills were transferred to civil engineering bureaucrats and engineers in charge of truly modern flood control.一部非公開情報ありdepartmental bulletin pape
Mail-order Services and Consumption Behaviors of Wealthy Families in Rural Areas in the Taishō Period : A Case Study Focused on the Relationships between Mitsukoshi and the Tanaka Family in Suzaka City, Nagano Prefecture
Get PDFapplication/pdf本稿は，長野県須坂に位置する田中本家の消費生活について，通信販売の利用という面に着目しながら分析したものである。田中本家は，明治期から昭和初期にかけて，三越をはじめとする東京の百貨店から，通信販売を利用して多くの買い物を行っていたことで知られるが，今回の共同研究において，本格的な資料調査が行われ，これまで未整理かつ未利用であった書簡資料にアクセスできたことから，通信販売の利用実態について，詳細な分析を行う準備が整えられた。検討の結果は以下の通りである。
大正期における田中本家は，通信販売を積極的に利用し，実にさまざまな商品を購入していた。最も頻繁に利用していたのが三越で，次いで長野市のいくつかの業者と，三越以外の東京所在業者を多く利用していたことが確認された。東京との関係だけではなく，近傍の地方都市との関係が密接であったことは，地方資産家による通販利用の実態を考える上で，一つの重要な発見といえる。呉服類の単価を比較すると，最高級品は三越で，それに次ぐランクの商品は長野市の業者から買い求め，地元須坂では最も廉価な商品を購入していた。
こうした棲み分けは，三越による流行の影響が及んでいたことを示唆するが，取引の実態に立ち入ってみれば，通信販売を通じた流行の伝播には大きな限界があった。田中本家に残る書簡から判断する限り，品切れによるキャンセルや代品送付が多く，注文した商品を入手できるかどうかは不透明であった。ここに長野市所在の商店が入り込む余地が生まれ，地理的な近接性を活かした機敏な対応と顔の見える関係によって，同家のさまざまな需要に応じていた。逆にいえば，それでも同家が三越との取引を止めることなく，繰り返し注文を行っていたことが注目される。その背景には，流行の影響力があったと考えざるを得ないが，それは多分に三越のストア・イメージというレベルの問題であったと想定される。This article analyzes the consumption behavior of the Tanaka family in Suzaka City, Nagano Prefecture, focusing on their use of mail-order services. The family is known to have purchased various goods from department stores in Tokyo, such as Mitsukoshi, through mail order from the late 19th to the early 20th century although not all the related letters have been analyzed. These unorganized letters are examined in this joint research through a comprehensive examination of documents of the family, revealing how they actually used mail-order services. The results of the examination are shown below.
The Tanaka family made intensive use of mail-order services and purchased a variety of goods in the Taishō period (1912-1926). Their most favorite store was Mitsukoshi, followed by shops in Nagano City and other stores than Mitsukoshi in Tokyo. It is worth noting that the family had close connections not only with stores in Tokyo but also with those in the nearest prefectural capital. This discovery can provide important insights for the analysis of how wealthy families in rural areas used mail-order services. A comparison of prices of kimonos and fabrics purchased by the Tanaka family reveals that they bought the most expensive products from Mitsukoshi, the second most expensive ones from stores in Nagano City, and the cheapest ones from stores in their local city of Suzaka.
This distinction indicates the strong influence of Mitsukoshi on fashion trends. Still, in actuality, the influence was significantly restricted due to the store's mail order service. The letters preserved in the Tanaka family suggest that many of the orders were cancelled or substituted because the ordered items were out of stock. This uncertainty of availability forced the family to deal with stores in Nagano City, which responded flexibly to various demands of the family by leveraging their geographical proximity and face-to-face relationships. Conversely, it is worth noting that the family continued to patronize Mitsukoshi despite disadvantages. One of the reasons is considered the influence of Mitsukoshi on fashion trends though such a strong influence was merely incidental to the store's brand image.departmental bulletin pape
[Research Materials] Umemoto Records : Introduction of Historical Material on Arson by Harlots of Umemoto-ya Sakichi in Shinyoshiwara Licensed Red-light District in 1849
Get PDFapplication/pdfdepartmental bulletin pape
Recognition of Manchukuo and the Japanese Children's Mission : An Attempt to Establish Friendly Diplomacy between Japan and Manchukuo by Using Children of Elementary School Age
Get PDFapplication/pdf昭和七年六月下旬、満州国承認の気運を盛り上げるために満州国少女使節が来日するが、それに答えて民間の小学校教員団体である全国連合小学校教員会は、私設団体の立場から、教育親善の子供使節を提案する。
民間の教員団体の発案にはじまる親善計画は、新聞社の参入と国の協力のなか、民間交流という枠を越えて政官民が一体となったイベントとして一人歩きをはじめる。使節に選ばれることは母校や地域の名誉として、地方を中心に異常な盛り上がりをみせ、国民レベルで注目を集めるのである。
しかしこの計画の主宰者たちには、一九二七年の日米人形交流のように、お互いの国を対等に認めた上で、相互理解と世界平和をめざす子供達による親善交流という視点はない。それは遅れた満州国が近代国家になるように日本が指導するという、上下関係の上で成り立つ平和と親善交流であった。
誕生したばかりの満州国を日本が守り育て、アジア人のためのアジアを建設することが東洋平和、そして世界平和につながるという意識を、多くの小学校高学年の子供達も共有していた。日本のアジア支配を正当化する国民的使命を自覚して、学童使節は承認されたばかりの満州国へ旅立ったのである。昭和七年の時点で、“満蒙は日本の生命線”という意識は、子供達の胸にもしっかりと刻み込まれていた。さらに「平和の使ひ」「純真なる十五名の使節」の語が踊るように、大人社会の謀略を覆い隠すために、子供というイメージの利用価値は、日満の両政府をはじめ社会的にも浸透していた。
少女使節から日本学童使節までの子供による日満親善交流をみるかぎり、満州への侵略を正当化する世論を盛り上げる文化侵略の手段として、一九三〇年前後に日本で大衆化した純粋･無垢という子供観は、官民を問わず国民的レベルで利用されたと言えるのである。Dispatched in return for the courtesy visit paid by the Manchukuo Girl's Mission, the Japanese Children's Mission went beyond mere private-sector international exchange and generated its own momentum as a public-private partnership event. Nevertheless, the organizers of this scheme did not intend to strengthen mutual understanding between Japan and Manchukuo or establish their friendship on an equal footing. They merely aimed for “peace and friendship” based on the vertical relationship in which Japan helped Manchukuo to transform from an underdeveloped to a modern nation.
The members of the Children's Mission also shared the common understanding that the peace of East Asia and the world could be realized by Japan's protecting and helping Manchukuo. When they visited the newly recognized country of Manchukuo, they fully understood their national mission to justify the control of the Japanese over Asia. The children-to-children friendly diplomacy between Japan and Manchukuo, such as the Manchukuo Girl's Mission and the Japanese Children's Mission, indicates the image of children as being “pure and innocent” that was established around 1930 was used nationwide by both the public and private sectors as means of cultural imperialism to manipulate public opinion and justify the invasion of Manchukuo.departmental bulletin pape
[Research Notes] Renovation Project of the Permanent Exhibition Gallery One (Prehistoric and Early Japan) of the National Museum of Japanese History : FY 2014 Activity Report
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[Research Notes] A Study of the Hina Dolls of the Wealthy Tanaka Family
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