38981 research outputs found
Sort by
Exploring high-resolution carbon isotopes in archaeological charcoal as a rainfall seasonality proxy
No full textRainfall in present-day South Africa is distinctly seasonal, with a Summer Rainfall Zone (SRZ) in the east, a Winter Rainfall Zone (WRZ) in the west, and a Year-Round Rainfall Zone (YRZ) along the south coast and interior between them. Understanding shifts in these zones during Late Pleistocene glacial- interglacial cycles is crucial for both regional climate reconstructions and interpreting behavioural variability in the South African Later Stone Age (LSA) archaeological record. However, several key palaeoarchives employed to reconstruct rainfall seasonality during the Late Pleistocene are hindered by low temporal resolution, reliance on inference and untenable ecological relationships, and their spatial and temporal distance from archaeological evidence. This research tests whether a proven seasonal precipitation proxy (SPP) based on high-resolution carbon isotope profiles — successfully applied to evergreen wood in the Northern Hemisphere — can be used to reconstruct rainfall seasonality from South African archaeological Proteaceae (angiosperm) and Podocarpaceae (gymnosperm) charcoal. Modern Protea and Podocarpus wood and charcoal samples from all three rainfall zones are tested to assess the SPP's applicability in South Africa and its ability to extract seasonal climate data from different materials. Results show that seasonal amplitudes (Δδ13Cmeas), changes in precipitation (ΔP), and ratios of summer to winter rainfall (PS/PW) align with local rainfall data. Slight discrepancies between wood and charcoal seasonal amplitudes and therefore values for ΔP and PS/PW are attributed to carbonisation effects, including 13C depletion and volume shrinkage leading to reduced sampling resolution, which lead to a repeated but quantifiable overestimation of summer rainfall in charcoal. In the WRZ, seasonal amplitudes are dulled relative to local rainfall data due to intermittent growth cessation during seasonal dry periods, but these effects could in some cases be corrected for. Analysis of Podocarpaceae charcoals from Waterfall Bluff showed an increase in summer rainfall during the Last Glacial-Interglacial Transition (LGIT), while Proteaceae charcoals from Boomplaas Cave showed an increase in winter rainfall during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). These results support existing models of Southern Hemisphere (SH) westerly shifts. The SPP offers a quantitative, high-resolution, on-site proxy for seasonality in archaeological contexts, with potential applicability to global archaeological sites from which evergreen charcoals have been retrieved
National development banks' investments in climate resilient infrastructure: challenges and prospects
No full textThis thesis explores the challenges faced by National Development Banks (NDBs) in facilitating investments toward low-carbon and climate-resilient sustainable infrastructure in South Africa. It emphasises their critical role in addressing substantial financing gaps essential for meeting the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) commitments under the Paris Agreement. As global priorities increasingly shift toward sustainable development goals, NDBs are undergoing significant transformation, transitioning from their traditional roles as financiers to becoming proactive mobilisers of investment. This pivotal shift is examined in this study within the broader context of a renewed interest in these banks, recognising them as essential policy tools for spearheading rapid and sustainable development initiatives. Through qualitative interviews with 12 experts in climate finance and related fields, the study illustrates how NDBs utilise financial instruments such as concessional loans, blended finance, and long-term financing to mitigate perceived high risks and attract private capital, particularly in sectors prone to high risks like water management and climate-resilient transport. Additionally, NDBs can be mandated by the government to channel substantial international funds into national sustainable infrastructure projects effectively. This mission-oriented approach underscores the unique position of NDBs as critical intermediaries and implementers in the national climate strategy. Despite their potential to bridge vast funding gaps and align their focus with the Paris Agreement, NDBs encounter significant challenges, including policy inadequacies, coordination difficulties, financial constraints, and external economic pressures. This study proposes innovative strategies for NDBs, such as expanding blended finance models, implementing risk mitigation mechanisms, and enhancing institutional capacities to support mobilising funding for sustainable and low-carbon infrastructure. The findings highlight NDBs' ability to adapt to market conditions and regulatory environments, highlighting their pivotal role in transforming South Africa's infrastructure financing landscape to achieve its NDC objectives. Furthermore, this research underscores the importance of strategic policy alignment and innovative financing approaches, including using guarantees and partnerships with international climate funds to enhance project bankability and enable significant private sector participation. Ultimately, this study demonstrates that NDBs are crucial in driving the investment towards a climate-resilient infrastructure in South Africa
Leveraging numerical relativity formulations for perturbative analysis: applications to quasinormal modes in general relativity
Full text linkNumerical relativity has become an essential tool for studying highly dynamic and strong-field regimes of general relativity, enabling the simulation of compact object mergers, gravitational col-lapse, and other nonlinear phenomena. At the same time, perturbation theory provides a powerful analytical framework for understanding small deviations from equilibrium configurations, offering insights into gravitational wave emission, stability, and fundamental mode structures of relativistic systems. Despite their complementary strengths, numerical relativity and perturbation theory are often treated as distinct approaches, with limited interaction between them. Bridging this gap is crucial for improving our ability to extract physical information from numerical simulations and for validating approximations used in perturbative studies. In this work, we study two key problems on quasinormal modes of compact objects, as a case study in unifying numerical relativity with perturbation theory. We discuss a new approach for analyzing linearized perturbations of a Schwarzschild black hole using the characteristic formulation of numerical relativity, focusing on the computation of quasinormal modes (QNMs). Unlike traditional methods based on the Regge-Wheeler and Zerilli equations, this approach focuses on deriving the master equation governing gravitational perturbations within the characteristic formulation of numerical relativity. We analyze the singular points of this equation, and we derive series solutions with coefficients determined by three-term recurrence relations. These allow for the application of Leaver's continued fraction method, leading to the standard Schwarzschild quasinormal modes (QNMs). In addition, we investigate linearized ADM perturbations on a Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff (TOV) background solution to study radial perturbations. Within this framework, the perturbation equations take the form of three coupled partial differential equations, in contrast to the usual Sturm-Lioville problem that arises in the traditional approach. Using the Weighted Essentially Non-Oscillatory (WENO) finite difference method, we analyze three models derived from a polytropic equation of state: one stable, one marginally stable near the onset of instability, and one unstable. Our results consistent with those derived from standard methods, confirming the expected stability characteristics of these models
Invisible labour: the role of institutionalised Xenophobia in shaping the experiences of migrant domestic workers in South Africa
Full text linkBackground: Physiotherapy remains a female dominated profession, yet in certain professional spheres female physiotherapists are underrepresented. This is particularly evident in men's professional sport. Despite efforts to promote inclusivity and diversity in various professional men's sports, females in coaching, leadership and support roles remain underrepresented and continue to face significant challenges. While World Rugby, has put policies and development plans in place to address gender inequality, this does not necessarily extend to support staff, like physiotherapists. Lavoi's (2016) socio-ecological model has previously been used to explore the multidimensional barriers that affect the lived experiences of female coaches working in men's sports. However, the experiences of physiotherapists, faced with similar gender challenges, has not been explored. Purpose: This study aimed to identify the challenges and barriers of female physiotherapists working in professional men's rugby union. Guided by the socio-ecological model, it examined the individual, interpersonal, organisational, and sociocultural barriers, and challenges encountered by these therapists, and the facilitators or supports that have made female physiotherapists stay and develop in professional men's rugby union. Methods: A phenomenological qualitative study was undertaken utilising semi-structured interviews. Purposeful criterion sampling was used to identify potential participants who met the inclusion criteria. Participants were recruited through a professional acquaintance of the researcher who is associated with professional men's rugby union. The professional acquaintance was requested to circulate recruitment information to individuals who they identified as prospective participants, who then contacted the researcher. Semi-structured interviews were conducted via Microsoft Teams and transcribed for analysis. A stepwise inductive-deductive thematic analysis was performed to generate an initial list of codes aligned to the four levels of Lavoi's (2016) socio-ecological model. The codes were organised into subthemes by identifying patterns in the coded data and continuously reviewed to identify emerging deductive themes based on the model. Results: Participants included 12 physiotherapists, working globally in professional men's rugby for an average of 5.3 years. The thematic analysis identified 18 higher order themes, categorising them as either barriers or supports. The greatest barriers emerged in the societal and organisational dimensions, while the individual dimension provided the most supporting factors. As individuals, physiotherapists noted significant personal sacrifices which affected their work-life balance and negatively impacted on personal relationships. However, their job rewarded them and provided satisfaction particularly linked to returning athletes to play. At an interpersonal level, participants had a supportive and respectful relationship with the athletes but identified a lack of female role models in rugby union. Organisationally, participants faced significant challenges describing inadequate policies, particularly around maternity leave and family obligations. They were often overlooked and dismissed for better roles. At the societal level, barriers emerged relating to traditional gender roles, gender power dynamics, and gender stereotypes within their teams. Conclusion: Despite policies promoting gender equity in professional men's rugby structures, female physiotherapists working in these environments continue to face gender-related challenges which hinder their representation and career progression. This often forces them into leaving these roles. The findings underscore the importance of implementing and enforcing policy frameworks aimed at increasing female representation and breaking down gendered structures within rugby organisations. At the club level, offering mentorship programs, career progression pathways, and flexible work-life balance options can support female physiotherapists professional growth and retention. Promoting transparency in recruitment processes and increasing the visibility of females in these roles can not only normalise their presence but also inspire greater female representation in the field. Implications: Sporting codes need to improve their structures and policies to better support and retain female physiotherapists, therefore negating the masculine norm within certain sporting disciplines. Female physiotherapists are as capable as their male counterparts of fulfilling these roles and should be presented with equal opportunities to do so
Development of sea ice diagnostic tools for high-resolution simulations of the Climate Model Intercomparison Project (HiResMIP)
No full textDerived from the necessity to more thoroughly understand the role that horizontal resolution plays in the performance of climate modelling, this minor-dissertation describes the development and initial testing of a High-Resolution Sea Ice Diagnostics Toolset. This is designed to evaluate the influence increased horizontal resolution has on the ability of high-resolution climate models to recreate Antarctic sea ice behaviour. Analysis is conducted through the calculation and visualisation of a defined univariate performance metric, referencing a single user defined satellite-derived observational dataset. Developed in Python, cloud-ready datasets and computing capabilities are utilized to eliminate the need for local download of large model datasets and extensive computational capacity. Temporal mean metric values are produced and visualized, providing easy visual analysis of regional model performance for each respective temporal grouping. Spatial mean metric values for each month produce a time series that reveal performance trends. Distributions of these values give insight into the model performance for particular seasons and months. Sensitivity analysis functionality enables the assessment of model performance for specified ranges of observed sea ice concentration values. A preliminary assessment is conducted to substantiate the value of the toolset products. Results indicate alignment with findings of Selivanova et al. (2024) where only marginal improvement in model performance is seen with increased resolution for the models assessed. Additionally, sensitivity analysis results highlight the shortcomings of all assessed models in recreating Antarctic sea ice behaviour across the marginal ice zone. Integration of cloud-ready datasets and cloud computing sees significant reduction in time and increased functionality. While the scope of this minor dissertation limits the depth of analysis, the toolset developed here is shown to provide useful insights into the role of horizontal resolution and establishes backbone from which users can generate and visualise univariate metrics for high resolution datasets with minimal local computational load and significantly reduced runtime
Rurality and the people-centric approach to public service delivery in the digital age–a study of South African rurality as a proxy for low- and middle-income country contexts
Full text linkBased on a pragmatist worldview, I employed an exploratory sequential mixed-methods research design to enhance our understanding of the public value of information and communication technology (ICTs) and the nature of services delivered in low- and middle-income settings. Understanding the intricate relationship between rurality, ICT expansion, and service delivery in low- and middle-income settings is imperative for tailoring technology-driven strategies to rural areas within the constraints of limited resources. While some e-service delivery initiatives have succeeded, their overall effectiveness remains mixed. Further research is needed to achieve universal coverage and enhance functionality beyond basic communication for more meaningful use. This study is motivated by the need to explore how the quality of rural amenities—an indicator of rurality—intersects with the proliferation of ICTs as a driver of transformation and development. Additionally, recent studies have pointed to the importance of rurality measures that reflect peripherality, adjacency, contextuality, and demographic characteristics. South African rurality measures in particular could be enhanced by incorporating factors such as contiguity, flows, poverty, and service accessibility. In the qualitative phase of the study, I gleaned insights from official documents, reports, research articles, and interviews. The study was grounded on service-dominant approaches to new public management (NPM) models, based on theoretical underpinnings drawn from public value and information asymmetry theories. NPM underscores the significance of understanding the role and impact of ICTs on service-dominant approaches. I adopted the digital divide model and the communication for development (C4D) framework to develop data collection instruments and to evaluate development communication. Despite challenges posed by the sparse population distribution hindering the effectiveness of digital service provision and discouraging service providers from establishing relevant communication infrastructure, I found that the value of digital service provision in rural areas primarily manifests in reduced distances and the time required to access intangible services. Utilising the 2011 South African census data and other contemporaneous datasets, I developed spatial rurality indexes using JRC-EC's index development procedure and the procedures used in other studies. Underdeveloped and remote regions exhibited significantly greater access to public healthcare and education services, which were particularly well-suited to the advantages offered by ICTs. In the context of ICT proliferation, my findings suggest that the economics of service delivery information tend to favour service providers and those who are socioeconomically advantaged, resulting in varying benefits, particularly for service consumers. This information imbalance arises from the power wielded by service providers, stemming from their ownership of ICT-based C4D spaces and advantages in overseeing service delivery processes. Affordable, user-friendly, and accessible technologies, particularly mobile phones, mobile-based applications, and mass media, primarily functioned as information disseminators, repositories of knowledge, and communication tools for marginalised rural service consumers. Hence, I argue that the benefits of information asymmetry for consumers are minimised. These benefits are not directly tied to their utilisation of publicly available service delivery information, which is meant to provide transparency and enhance their participation and oversight of service delivery processes. Instead, access to the information by other actors such as central government may enforce these advantages. It is crucial to acknowledge that ICT-based development communication in low- and middle-income contexts primarily facilitates a top-down information flow, with service consumers mainly participating in service delivery by providing information to support service delivery processes
The effect of a 12-week exercise training intervention on physical behaviour patterns and perceptions of body image in Black South African women living with overweight and obesity
Full text linkBackground: This thesis aimed to evaluate the effects of a 12-week combined (aerobic and resistance) exercise training intervention on: i) the changes in physical behaviours and ii) body image and self-efficacy. Lastly, iii) this thesis explored the perceptions and experiences of the women after participating in the 12-week combined exercise training intervention. Methods: Forty-five young (18-35 years) apparently healthy Black SA women living with overweight and obesity were randomised into either an exercise (EXE; n=23) or a control group (CON; n=22). The EXE group participated in 12-week aerobic and resistance supervised exercise training (40-60 min/session, 4 days/week), while the control group maintain their usual physical behaviour patterns. Generalized self-efficacy (GSE) questionnaire and Stunkard's silhouettes were used to measure general self-efficacy and perceptions of body image. Participants wore ActiGraph and ActivPAL accelerometers simultaneously for 7 days to quantify physical activity (PA) and sedentary behaviour (SB) at baseline, week 4, 8 and 12, considering all days, exercise days and non-exercise days. Focus group discussions (FGDs) and in-depth interviews (IDIs) were conducted to investigate the participants' perceptions and experiences of the intervention. Results: Thirty-five participants, EXE (n=20) and CON (n=15) completed the intervention. There was a group x time interaction for body weight and CRF, whereby weight decreased by ~1 kg (p= 0.007) and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) increased by ~2.7 ml/kg/min (p=0.001) in the EXE group only. Considering only exercise days, moderate-to- vigorous physical activity and total physical activity (%) increased from baseline to weeks 4, 8 and 12 in the EXE group, but did not change in the CON group (p<0.001 for group x time interaction). Daily steps accumulated during the exercise days increased from baseline, (mean ± standard deviation; 9429 ± 4019 steps/day) to week 4 (15050 ± 3167 steps/day; p<0.001), week 8 (14780 ± 4224 steps/day; p<0.001) and week 12 (15695 ± 3550 steps/day; p<0.001), but did not change in the CON group (10131 ± 4561 steps/day). There was a significant decrease in SB (% of awake time) from baseline to week 12 (58.9 ± 9.4% to 48.9 ± 9.1%; p<0.001 for group x time interaction) among the EXE group considering exercise days only. Despite the average measured body mass index of 33.8 ± 2.7 kg/m2 for both groups at baseline, 31.4% of the women classified themselves as normal weight, 65.7% as overweight and only 2.9% as living with obesity. None of the women perceived themselves as living with obesity after the intervention. The Stunkard's silhouettes showed that women from both groups presented with body size discordance, such that at baseline, most participants desired a smaller body size and this did not change in response to the intervention. A significant decline in general self-efficacy was observed in both groups post intervention (p=0.021, time effect), and this did not differ between groups (p=0.801, for group x time interaction). Qualitative findings showed that weight loss (anticipated and actual) and financial remuneration for travelling costs and time (nominal) were reported as motivators for enrolling and staying in the intervention. Improvement in psychological wellbeing (improved mood and self-esteem) and perceived level of self-efficacy were other reported benefits of the intervention. Lack of time, distance to the training venue and limited transport to the training venue were some of the barriers to attending the exercise sessions. Conclusion: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study in SA to show significant increases in TPA and MVPA, with compensatory reduction in SB in response to combined exercise training among women living with overweight and obesity. A clear indication that the overall changes in the physical behaviour patterns among the exercise group were largely due to the participation in the exercise sessions. Furthermore, the positive changes in physical behaviour patterns and CRF experienced by the exercise group have the potential to improve the cardiometabolic health of this population. In addition, findings from this thesis show promise of the positive impact of exercise on improving psychological wellbeing. Lastly, majority of the women in the study desired to be smaller in body size, suggesting that these women may be receptive to health and weight-loss exercise interventions
The introduction of workplace-based assessment for general surgery training at a South African university
Full text linkAssessment in postgraduate training in South Africa has traditionally focused solely on knowledge objectives. There is currently a movement to introduce Workplace-Based Assessment (WBA) to evaluate trainee clinical competence. However, concerns have been raised regarding the feasibility of this approach in a South African context. Similar concerns about feasibility and other issues with WBA implementation have been identified in General surgery in different settings. The aim of this study was to determine if it was possible to introduce WBA and to identify the characteristics of a WBA strategy that would ensure successful implementation at a South African university. Methods: The design-based research methodology was used to define the educational problem, generate guiding principles for a solution, test the solution through cycles of implementation and refinement, and finally reflect on the implementation process to derive a final set of design principles. The study was conducted in the Division of General Surgery at the University of Cape Town from 2022 to 2023. The planning of the design and the interpretation of the findings were considered in the context of socio-cultural learning theory. Results: Fifteen guiding principles, underpinned by theory, were used to design the WBA strategy. Three cycles of testing and refinement showed relatively high perceived feasibility, acceptability, and appropriateness among trainees and supervisors. The lessons learned from each cycle enabled the solution and design principles to be modified, in consultation with a stakeholder team, to further enhance participant perceptions and implementation. This process resulted in 15 final design principles, of which six were substantive and nine were procedural. The substantive principles related to the selection of EPAs, assessment tools, the supervisor base, and the digital platform. The procedural principles related to the pace of introduction, team development, managing the formative-summative tension, and change management approach. Conclusion: WBA can be introduced for postgraduate General surgery training at a South African university. Design principles have been identified to ensure a feasible introduction in this context. These principles may assist others in implementing new or refining existing WBA strategies
The limitations of the legal framework in addressing the problem of child labour in artisanal and small-scale mining in Zimbabwe
Full text linkWhilst the rights of children are protected in various legal instruments both at domestic and international level, reality stands in stark contrast to the aspirations for children expressed in these legal instruments. The socio-economic conditions people in developing countries, particularly those in poor rural areas of developing countries like Zimbabwe has pushed people into artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) of various minerals for survival. Many children in these families and those of child-headed homes also participate in ASM to the extent of dropping out from school. The ASM environment, which is largely informal thus lacking government oversight, using rudimentary methods to extract minerals and hosting criminals and violent gangs, is not conducive for children and in many ways violates children`s rights. Children are involved in hazardous and hard work in violation of international standards governing child labour. Children are exposed to toxic chemicals harmful to their physical development and to prostitution, drug abuse, sexual abuse, and human trafficking in ASM. This research, through a doctrinal research methodology, examined the problem of child labour and recommended that the government formalize ASM in Zimbabwe to enhance oversight on conditions of work, restrict child participation, and ensure that participants in ASM develop skills and derive value for their mineral output. The formalized ASM industry must specifically accommodate women and mature children to earn a living. Further, the government must expand funding for primary and secondary school education and social security for families to eliminate the urgency drawing children into ASM
Determination of illegal and toxic ingredients in face creams
Full text linkThe increasing prevalence of counterfeit and substandard face creams on the market poses significant risks to consumer health, with some products containing illegal and toxic ingredients that can lead to serious dermatological and systemic effects. This study focuses on the identification and quantification of illegal and toxic ingredients in fifty-eight skin cosmetic creams marketed to reduce pigmentation. Samples that were selected were those labelled as ‘'Skin lightening'', Skin brightening'', Skin whitening,” or “even tone” creams, purchased from local vendors within the Cape Town Metropolis, and from an online store. This study employed advanced analytical techniques to assess the potential health risks of face creams. The High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) method was used to determine thirteen compounds of interest such as hydroquinone, kojic acid (KA), and steroids. Secondly, Inductively Coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) assisted with MARS 6 digester was employed to determine metals (mercury, lead, chromium, nickel, cadmium, arsenic, etc.). Lastly, the study assessed potential health risk of the actives and metals through predictive risk assessment models developed by United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). The health risk models consider active concentration (at 95% confidence level), and the unique properties of active or metal. The United States Environmental Protection Agency calculates carcinogenic cancer risk of metals using the Cancer Slope Factor (CSF) and the Average Daily Dose (ADD). The ADD is determined based on the concentration of the metal, intake rate, exposure frequency and duration, body weight, and averaging time. The cancer risk is then calculated by multiplying the ADD by the CSF, which represents the probability of developing cancer per unit of exposure. Risks are typically expressed as a probability (e.g., 1 in 10,000) and are compared to acceptable thresholds, usually ranging from 10−6 to 10−4. This assessment accounts for the metal's carcinogenic properties, exposure pathways and population sensitivities to evaluate potential health impacts. The analysis of face cream samples revealed the presence of eleven active compounds, including several illegal and toxic substances. Steroids were the most prevalent, detected in approximately 45% of the samples, with Clobetasol propionate (CP) being the predominant steroid, accounting for 68% of the steroid detections. Other steroids identified included Cortisone, Betamethasone Dipropionate (BD), Betamethasone (BM), and Fluocinolone, found in 12%, 12%, 4%, and 4% of the samples, respectively. Hydroquinone (HQ) was present in 16% of the samples, with concentrations ranging from 0.096% to 4.301%, particularly high in imported products. Arbutin, a derivative of HQ, was detected in 7% of the samples, while 4- phenoxy phenol appeared in 5% of the samples. Kojic Acid (KA) was found in 19% of the samples. Additionally, 4-butyl resorcinol, a potent tyrosinase inhibitor, was present in 59% of the samples, and 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, a common preservative, was detected in 43%. Heavy metals results provided a comprehensive insight into the presence of thirteen heavy metals (As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Co, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, V, Zn, Se, and Sb). Most samples contained multiple heavy metals, indicating a wide spread of occurrence across the tested products. Lead (Pb) was detected in forty-six samples (79.3%) at concentrations ranging from 0.001-15.41 ppm. Notably two samples, Chadni whitening cream and Rico had high concentrations at 3.71 ppm and 15.42 ppm respectively, above the threshold limit of 0.5 ppm. Mercury results were in the majority (85.75%) of samples exceeded the 1ppm safety threshold set by regulatory bodies. Products from Pakistan, China, India, and other countries were found to contain high mercury levels, with two samples, Omni Gold and Sandal, exhibiting exceptionally high concentrations. Notably, 55.4% of samples had mercury below 10 ppm, while 41.1% had levels in the tens to hundreds of ppm. Health risk assessment results indicated that hazard quotient levels were low, and the carcinogenic risk (CR) values for all detected metals were less than 1. Chromium (Cr) and Nickel (Ni) were the primary contributors to higher CR values. These findings highlight significant concerns regarding the presence of harmful substances in face creams, emphasizing the need for rigorous regulatory oversight. The health risk results for hydroquinone showed that seven samples, including Natural Glow Carotone (4.68 x 10⁻⁵), Coco Pulp (4.30 x 10⁻⁵), and Light & Bright (3.42 x 10⁻⁵), exceeded the CR threshold of 1 x 10⁻⁶ - that is, more than 1 in 1,000,000 persons was likely to develop cancer from continuous use of hydroquinone over the calculated period (70 years). These elevated CR values suggest a carcinogenic risk, with Natural Glow Carotone posing the highest risk among the tested samples. The hazard quotient values for creams containing mercury (ranging from 3.8 x 10−4 to 1.17 x 10−1 (0.117), were all below 1, indicating that the mercury content in these samples is unlikely to pose significant non-cancer health risks. Carcinogenic risk (CR) was below 1 x 10⁻⁶ for twenty -five samples (44%). However, thirty-three samples (56%) exceeded the cancer risk threshold of 1 x 10⁻⁶. Products with CR values above this threshold are considered unsafe for regular use, as they may expose consumers to potentially harmful levels of carcinogenic substances over time. Nine of the creams that contained hydroquinone also contained mercury. The calculated carcinogenic risk (CR) for hydroquinone was comparable higher than those of mercury, implying a greater contribution from hydroquinone to the overall risk from using the cream