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Metal nanoparticles in antimicrobial coatings
No full textCilj ovog rada bio je istražiti na koji način formulacije koje sadrže nanočestice metala i djelatne tvari utječe na mikrobnu aktivnost. U radu je dan pregled područja s posebnim osvrtom na ulogu nanočestica u istraživanju i razvoju lijekova, medicinske opreme i pribora,
s ciljem razvoja rješenja koja pomažu u antimikrobnoj zaštiti, s posebnim osvrtom na problem antimikrobne rezistencije. Nanočestice se zbog svoje velike površinske aktivnosti i reaktivnosti sve više koriste u raznim formulacijama. Kao modelni sustav odabrane su nanočestice bakra, koje su priređene postupkom redukcije bakrovih iona s askorbinskom kiselinom i stabilizirane polimerom. U priređenu smjesu dodat je antibiotik doksiciklin te je nakon homogenizacije formulacija dodatno stabilizirana želatinom kako bi bila pogodna za nanošenje na određene podloge. Priređene formulacije testirane su na niz mikroorganizama, uključujući Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa i Staphylococcus aureus, te su u svim slučajevima pokazale antimikrobnu aktivnost. Rezultati pokazuju da kombinacija bakrenih nanočestica s doksiciklinom značajno pojačava antimikrobni učinak u usporedbi s pojedinačnom primjenom, ističući potencijal za primjenu u prevenciji i liječenju infekcija uzrokovanih rezistentnim mikroorganizmima.
Ovaj pristup također nudi održiva i inovativna rješenja u borbi protiv sve prisutnijeg problema antimikrobne otpornosti, čime se otvara mogućnost daljnjeg razvoja formulacija koje bi mogle imati potencijalnu primjenu u medicinskoj praksi.The aim of this study was to investigate how formulations containing metal nanoparticles and active substances affect microbial activity. The paper provides an overview of the field with a special focus on the role of nanoparticles in the research and development of drugs, medical equipment, and supplies, with the goal of developing solutions that aid in antimicrobial protection, with particular emphasis on the issue of antimicrobial resistance. Due to their high surface activity and reactivity, nanoparticles are increasingly being used in various formulations. Copper nanoparticles were selected as the model system, which were prepared by the reduction of copper ions with ascorbic acid and stabilized with a polymer. Doxycycline was added to the prepared mixture, and after homogenization, the formulation was further stabilized with gelatin to make it suitable for application to specific substrates. The prepared formulations were tested on a range of microorganisms, including Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus, and in all cases, they exhibited antimicrobial activity. The results show that the combination of copper nanoparticles with doxycycline significantly enhances the antimicrobial effect compared to individual application, highlighting the potential for use in the prevention and treatment of infections caused by resistant microorganisms.
This approach also offers sustainable and innovative solutions in the fight against the increasingly prevalent problem of antimicrobial resistance, opening the possibility for further development of formulations that could have potential applications in medical practice
Influence of radiation sources for the photodegradation of organic pollutants
No full textOnečišćenje okoliša odnosi se na unošenje stranih tvari, poznatih kao zagađivači, u okoliš u krutom, tekućem ili plinovitom obliku, bilo izravno ili neizravno. Ti zagađivači mogu postojati u koncentracijama koje predstavljaju rizik za ljudsko zdravlje i dobrobit drugih živih organizama. Osim toga, onečišćenje može dovesti do propadanja materijalnih dobara i pada kvalitete okoliša, utječući tijekom vremena na zrak, vodu, tlo i kulturnu baštinu. Fotokataliza ili fotokatalitička oksidacija predstavlja naprednu oksidacijsku tehniku koja se koristi za razgradnju i eliminaciju različitih zagađivača prisutnih u zraku i vodi. Ovaj proces koristi poluvodič kao katalizator, kisik kao oksidacijsko sredstvo i svjetlosno zračenje - ultraljubičaste zrake ili prirodno svjetlo - kao izvor energije koji aktivira katalizator. Na učinkovitost fotokatalitičke reakcije uvelike utječu valna duljina svjetlosne energije (fotona) i svojstva katalizatora. Tipično, poluvodiči se biraju kao katalizatori zbog svojih elektroničkih struktura osjetljivih na svjetlost, karakteriziranih i valentnom (VB) i vodljivom vrpcom (CB).
Cilj završnog rada je prikazati utjecaj izvora zračenja za fotorazgradnju organskih onečišćivala.Environmental pollution refers to the introduction of foreign substances, known as pollutants, into the environment in solid, liquid or gaseous form, either directly or indirectly. These pollutants can exist in concentrations that pose a risk to human health and the well-being of other living organisms. In addition, pollution can lead to the deterioration of material goods and a decline in the quality of the environment, affecting over time air, water, soil and cultural heritage. Photocatalysis or photocatalytic oxidation is an advanced oxidation technique used to break down and eliminate various pollutants present in air and water. This process uses a semiconductor as a catalyst, oxygen as an oxidizing agent, and light radiation—ultraviolet rays or natural light—as the energy source that activates the catalyst. The efficiency of the photocatalytic reaction is greatly influenced by the wavelength of light energy (photons) and the properties of the catalyst. Typically, semiconductors are chosen as catalysts because of their light-sensitive electronic structures characterized by both valence (VB) and conduction bands (CB).
The goal of the final paper is to show the influence of radiation sources for the photodegradation of organic pollutants
Preparation and characterisation of geopolymer films
No full textOvaj rad istražuje geopolimerne materijale koji su dobiveni miješanjem metakaolina, nastalog termičkom obradom kaolinitne gline i tri vrste vodenih stakala (Na, K i NaK). Termička obrada kaolinitne gline provedena je na 700 °C, čime je uspješno dobiven metakaolin, što je potvrđeno metodama XRD, TGA-DTA i ATR-FTIR. XRD analiza metakaolina pokazala je šire i manje intenzivne vrhove, što ukazuje na nižu razinu uređenja strukture u usporedbi s kaolinom. TGA/DTA spektar prikazao je značajan pad mase uzorka između 200 °C i 600 °C što odgovara dehidroksilaciji kaolina i stvaranju metakaolina. ATR-FTIR spektar potvrdio je izostanak karakterističnih pikova –OH skupina, što je dodatno dokazalo uspješnost termičke obrade. Geopolimeri su pripravljeni miješanjem metakaolina i vodenih stakala, a njihova strukturna i ostala svojstva analizirana su metodama XRD i ATR-FTIR. XRD analiza ukazuje na pretežno amorfno uređenje geopolimera, a varijacije intenziteta i pozicija maksimuna u FTIR spektrima ukazuju na različite kemijske sastave, ovisno o vrsti kationa prisutnih u vodenim staklima. FTIR spektri su potvrdili prisutnost silikatnih struktura s Si–O–Si vezama, s različitim vibracijama ovisno o specifičnom ionskom sastavu.
Geopolimeri su se istaknuli kao materijali s izvrsnim mehaničkim svojstvima, visokom kemijskom otpornošću i toplinskom stabilnošću. Njihova kation-izmjenjivačka i adsorpcijska svojstva čine ih izuzetno pogodnima za širok raspon primjena, posebno u građevinskoj industriji. Osim toga, zbog svoje ekološke prihvatljivosti i mogućnosti smanjenja emisije CO2, geopolimeri predstavljaju značajan korak prema održivijim građevinskim rješenjima.This paper investigates geopolymeric materials obtained by mixing metakaolin, created by thermal treatment of kaolinite clay, and three types of water glasses (Na, K and NaK). Thermal treatment of kaolinite clay was carried out at 700 °C, which successfully obtained metakaolin, which was confirmed by XRD, TGA/DTA and ATR/FTIR methods. XRD analysis of metakaolin showed broader and less intense peaks, indicating a lower level of structural ordering compared to kaolin. The TGA/DTA spectrum showed a significant decrease in the mass of the sample between 200 °C and 600 °C, which corresponds to the dehydroxylation of kaolin and the formation of metakaolin. The ATR-/FTIR spectrum confirmed the absence of characteristic peaks of –OH groups, which additionally proved the success of the thermal treatment. Geopolymers were prepared by mixing metakaolin and water glasses, and their structural and other properties were analyzed by XRD and ATR-FTIR methods. XRD analysis indicates a predominantly amorphous arrangement of geopolymers, and variations in the intensity and position of the maxima in the FTIR spectra indicate different chemical compositions, depending on the type of cations present in the water glasses. FTIR spectra confirmed the presence of silicate structures with Si–O–Si bonds, with different vibrations depending on the specific ionic composition.
Geopolymers have stood out as materials with excellent mechanical properties, high chemical resistance and thermal stability. Their cation-exchange and adsorption properties make them extremely suitable for a wide range of applications, especially in the construction industry. In addition, due to their environmental friendliness and ability to reduce CO2 emissions, geopolymers represent a significant step towards more sustainable construction solutions
Fabrication of intrinsically conductive and stretchable PEDOT/SEBS films
No full textElektrovodljivi polimeri su organski materijali čije su glavne karakteristike dobra električna, mehanička, termoelektrična i optička svojstva. Navedena svojstva im omogućuju vrlo široku primjenu u bioelektronici, nosivoj elektronici, optoelektričnim uređajima, energetskim uređajima i mekoj robotici. Vodljivi polimeri, poput poli(3,4-etilendioksitiofena) (PEDOT), imaju potencijal za primjenu u nosivoj elektronici, no potrebno im je dodatno poboljšati svojstva dodatkom plastifikatora, različitih dopanata ili termoplastičnih elastomera. Cilj ovog rada je izraditi intrinzički vodljive i rastezljive filmove na bazi PEDOT kopolimera, pomoću monomera EDOT i ThBr u omjeru 1:1, uz dodatak termoplastičnog elastomera SEBS-a koji povećava istezljivost polimernog filma. Uspješnost sintetiziranih PEDOT-Br:S-SEBS filmova potvrđena je infracrvenom spektroskopijom s Fourierovom transformacijom (FTIR). Zatim je provedena karakterizacija sintetiziranih filmova čime je potvrđena njihova električna provodnosti i istezljivost, kao i stabilnost u otopini natrijeva klorida koja simulira ljudski znoj. Električna provodnost je potvrđena upotrebom metode sonde s četiri točke (4PP), dok je istezljivost potvrđena primjenom ručne kidalice. Rezultati karakterizacije potvrdili su uspješnu sintezu, kao i izradu filmova PEDOT-Br:S-SEBS koji su pokazali zadovoljavajuća mehanička svojstva i stabilnost u otopini natrijeva klorida. Sintetizirani filmovi ispunjavaju zahtjeve za primjenu u nosivoj elektronici te su pogodni za daljnja istraživanja.Conductive polymers are organic materials that are characterized by excellent electrical, mechanical, thermoelectrical and optical properties. These properties enable a wide range of applications in bioelectronics, wearable electronics, optoelectronic devices, energy devices, and soft robotics. Conductive polymers, such as poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), have the potential to be used in wearable electronics, but their properties need to be further improved bythe addition of plasticizers, various dopants, or thermoplastic elastomers. The aim of this work is to develop intrinsically conductive and stretchable films based on PEDOT copolymers.For this purpose, the monomers EDOT and ThBr are used in a ratio of 1:1, andthe thermoplastic elastomer SEBS is added, which increases the stretchability of the polymer film. The success of the synthesized PEDOT-Br:S-SEBS films was confirmed by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Subsequent characterization of the films confirmed their electrical conductivity and stretchability, as well as their stability in a sodium chloride solution simulating human sweat. Electrical conductivity was confirmed using the four-point probe method (4PP), while stretchability was assessed using a manual extensiometer. The characterization results confirmed the successful synthesis and fabrication of PEDOT-Br:S-SEBS films, which showed satisfactory mechanical properties and stability in the sodium chloride solution. The synthesized films meet the requirements for use in wearable electronics and are suitable for further research
Pyrolytic processes of sludge treatment
No full textUz iscrpljivanje resursa neobnovljivih izvora i zabrinutost za zaštitu okoliša, povećao se interes za nove tehnologije stvaranja energenata. Od naftnih kriza početkom i kasnih 1970-ih uloženo je mnogo truda u razvoj procesa dobivanja tekućeg goriva iz biomase. Piroliza je jedna od najprihvatljivijih metoda takve pretvorbe. Tijekom pirolize, biomasa se brzo (1000 °C/s) zagrijava na oko 500 °C s vrlo kratkim vremenom zadržavanja pare (manje od 2 s), a pare zatim kondenziraju davajući tekućinu tamno smeđe boje koja se naziva biogorivo ili pirolizno gorivo. Zbog rastuće potrebe za vodom koja je uzrokovana povećanjem ljudskog stanovništva i industrije, veće su količine obrađene vode te time otpadnog mulja koji treba biti zbrinut. Taj mulj proizvedem obradom otpadnih voda se može pirolitički obraditi pri čemu se ujedinjuju energetske potrebe za gorivom te ljudske i industrijske potrebe za vodom.With depletion of non-renewable resources and environmental concerns, interest in new energy generation technologies has increased. Since the oil crisis in the early and late 1970s, much effort has been put into developing the process of producing liquid fuel from biomass. Pyrolysis is one of the most accepted methods of such conversion. During pyrolysis, the biomass is rapidly (1000 °C/s) heated to about 500 °C with a very short vapor retention time (less than 2 s), and then the vapors condense to give a dark brown liquid called bio-oil or pyrolysis oil. Because of greater water demand caused by the growth of the human population and industry, there are larger quantities of treated water and thus the waste sludge to be disposed of. This sludge produced by wastewater treatment can be pyrolytically treated, combining energy needs for fuel and human and industrial water needs
Biodegradation of polyvinyl chloride using Gram-positive bacteria
No full textDanas je život bez plastike i plastičnih proizvoda nezamisliv zbog njihove široke upotrebe i relativno lake proizvodnje, a među najkorištenijim plastikama su polietilen (PE), polipropilen (PP), poli(vinil-klorid) (PVC) i poli(etilen-tereftalat) (PET). Posljedica široke primjene plastika je njihova akumulacija u okolišu što može izazivati negativne utjecaje na okoliš, ali i na ljudsko zdravlje. Zbog toga se traže novi načini uklanjanja plastičnog otpada iz okoliša, a jedan način je i biorazgradnja. Biorazgradnja se odvija primjenom mikroorganizama koji su sposobni enzimima razgraditi polimerni lanac plastičnih materijala. U ovome radu istraživala se biorazgradnja PVC mikroplastike (MP) pomoću gram-pozitivne bakterijske kulture Bacillus subtilis. Cilj je bio odrediti optimalne uvjete biorazgradnje PVC MP. Pokus je proveden prema full factorial dizajnu ispitujući tri čimbenika na 3 razine: pH (6, 7 i 8), broj okretaja rotacijske tresilice (100, 150 i 200 o/min) i optička gustoća (OG) bakterijske suspenzije (0,1, 0,3 i 0,5). Pokus je trajao mjesec dana tijekom kojih se određivao ukupan broj živih stanica bakterija (CFU) te koncentracija ukupnog ugljika (TC), organskog ugljika (TOC) i anorganskog ugljika (TIC). Nakon provedenog pokusa biorazgradnje, iz vodene faze odvojene su čestice MP-a. Potom su čestice PVC MP okarakterizirane FTIR-ATR spektroskopijom, dok se LC-MS analiza primijenila za ispitivanje mogućih otpuštenih aditiva s PVC MP u vodenu fazu.
Na kraju je određena i ekotoksičnost vodene faze primjenom morske bakterije Vibrio fischeri, kako bi se utvrdilo nastaju li štetni razgradni produkti biorazgradnjom PVC-a. Dobiveni rezultati pokusa su obrađeni pomoću Design Expert programa uz statističku analizu (ANOVA). Određeni su sljedeći optimalni uvjeti biorazgradnje PVC MP primjenom Bacillus subtilis:
pH = 7,74, broj okretaja = 200 o/min te OG = 0,5.Today life without plastic products is unimaginable because of its broad use and relatively easy manufacturing. The most common types of plastic are polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). A result of its widespread use is the accumulation of plastic waste in the environment, which is not only a threat to the environment itself, but also the health of people and animals that live there. Because of that, new ways of removing plastic waste from the environment in an acceptable way are being researched, and one such method is biodegradation. Biodegradation occurs when microorganisms use their digestive enzymes to degrade the polymer chain of the plastic material. In this thesis the biodegradation of PVC microplastic (MP) using a
gram-positive bacteria Bacillus subtilis was investigated. The goal was to determine the optimal conditions of the biodegradation of PVC MP. The experiment design was the Full factorial design with 3 factors on 3 levels: pH (6, 7 and 8), speed of the rotary shaker
(100, 150 and 200 rpm) and the optical density (OD) of the suspension (0.1, 0.3 and 0.5). The experiment lasted 30 days during which the number of colony forming units (CFU), concentration of total carbon (TC), organic carbon (TOC) and inorganic carbon (TIC) were determined. After 30 days solid MPs were separated from the liquid phase using membrane filtration. After that the PVC MP was analysed using FTIR-ATR spectroscopy, while LC-MS was used to determine if any additives were released from the PVC MP into the liquid phase. Finally, the toxicity of the liquid phase was determined using the marine bacteria Vibrio fischeri, to determine if any harmful products of biodegradation of PVC were present.
The results were analysed using the program Design Expert with the analysis of variance (ANOVA). The optimal conditions for the biodegradation of PVC MP using Bacillus subtilis were: pH = 7,74, speed rotary shaker = 200 rpm and OD = 0,5
Development and validation of a chromatographic method for the determination of pharmaceuticals mixture in water
No full textFarmaceutici u okolišu i njihovo praćenje dva su značajna problema uzrokovana sve većim razvitkom farmaceutske industrije. Ovi spojevi u okolišu podliježu strukturnim promjenama pa tako mogu uzrokovati sinergijsko djelovanje s drugom tvari ili pak kemijski reagirati. Njihovo praćenje nužno je za pravovremeno sprječavanje ozbiljnijih posljedica. U ovom radu prikazani su i objašnjeni razvoj i validacija kromatografske tekućinske metode na HPLC-DAD uređaju u svrhu detekcije, identifikacije i kvantifikacije farmaceutika u deioniziranoj i u vodovodnoj vodi. Smjesa se sastojala od sljedećih farmaceutika: amoksicilin, atenolol prokain, ofloksacin, sulfametazin, sulfametoksazol, torasemid, karbamazepin, deksametazon, β-estradiol, diazepam i diklofenak. Razvijena je metoda gradijentna. Za nepokretnu fazu koristi
Kinetex 5 μm kolonu, a za pokretnu odabrani su voda kao anorganska i acetonitril kao organska faza. Mjerenje se provodilo pri valnim duljinama od 230, 240, 254, 275 i 290 nm, određenima snimanjem apsorpcijskih spektara farmaceutika u smjesi. Razvijena metoda validirana je eksperimentima u svrhu ispitivanja analitičkih značajki te metode, koje uključuju: linearnost metode, granice detekcije i kvantifikacije farmaceutika, osjetljivost, preciznost, istinitost, radno područje i robusnost metode. Svi eksperimenti provedeni su pomoću otopina farmaceutika u deioniziranoj i vodovodnoj vodi.Pharmaceuticals found in water and their monitoring seem to be two common problems due to the growth of pharmaceutical industry. These compounds can often interfere and act in synergy with other substances or materials. Pharmaceutical monitoring becomes inevitable in order to prevent serious consequences beforehand. This present work deals with the development and validation of a liquid chromatographic method performed with the instrument HPLC-DAD for the detection, identification and quantification of pharmaceuticals in deionized and tap water. Mixture of pharmaceuticals used in this work includes amoxicilin, atenolol, procaine, ofloxacin, sulfamethazine, sulfametoxazole, torasemide, carbamazepine, dexamethazone, β-estradiol, diazepam and diclofenac. The developed method is gradient-based. A Kinetex 5 μm column was chosen as the stationary phase. The mobile phase consisted of water as the inorganic component and acetonitrile as the organic component. The measurement was performed under defined conditions, at wavelengths of 230, 240, 254, 275 and 290 nm, which were selected based on the absorption maximums. The developed method was validated by experiments to investigate validation parameters, such as linearity, limit of detection, limit of quantitation, sensitivity, precision, accuracy, range and robustness. All experiments were performed for pharmaceutical mixtures in both deionized and tap water
Wood biomass products
No full textSvrha ovog završnog rada je pobliže opisati proizvode šumske biomase, poput peleta, briketa i sječke, njihov postupak nastanka i korist u energetske svrhe. Proizvodi od drvne biomase obnovljivi su izvori koji imaju značajnu ulogu u globalnom gospodarstvu i okolišu. Drveni peleti, drvna sječka i briketi neki su od najpopularnijih proizvoda drvne biomase koji se koriste diljem svijeta. Drveni peleti su mali, cilindrični komadići stlačene piljevine i drugog drvnog otpada koji se koriste kao gorivo u pećima i kotlovima na pelete. Drvna sječka su mali nepravilni komadići drva dobiveni usitnjavanjem, koriste se kao gorivo u elektranama na biomasu, za malčiranje u vrtlarstvu i proizvodnju papira. Briketi nastaju zagrijavanjem drva u nedostatku kisika, čime se proizvodi gorivo koje gori na visokim temperaturama i obično se koristi za kuhanje i grijanje.The purpose of this final paper is to describe forest biomass products, such as pellets, briquettes and wood chips, their production process and their use for energy purposes. Wood biomass products are renewable resources that play a significant role in the global economy and environment. Wood pellets, wood chips and briquettes are some of the most popular wood biomass products used around the world. Wood pellets are small, cylindrical pieces of compressed sawdust and other wood waste that are used as fuel in pellet stoves and boilers. Wood chips are small irregular pieces of wood obtained by shredding, they are used as fuel in biomass power plants, for mulching in gardening and for paper production. Briquettes are made by heating wood in the absence of oxygen, producing fuel that burns at high temperatures and is usually used for cooking and heating
Hydrogen as a propellant
No full textVodik se smatra važnim elementom u potrazi za čistim i održivim energetskim rješenjima zbog svoje sposobnosti da proizvede energiju s minimalnim emisijama štetnih plinova. Najlakši element u svemiru, vodik je izuzetno privlačan za dekarbonizaciju teško transformabilnih sektora poput transporta i industrije. Međutim, upotreba vodika kao goriva suočava se s izazovima kao što su proizvodnja, skladištenje, distribucija i sigurnost. Globalna energetska kriza i klimatske promjene potaknule su intenzivna istraživanja za njegovu širu primjenu. Vodik se može proizvoditi na više načina, uključujući elektrolizu i termokemijske procese, gdje je "zeleni" vodik, dobiven iz obnovljivih izvora, najčišći oblik. S druge strane, "sivi" i "smeđi" vodik proizvode se iz fosilnih goriva, često uz velike količine CO₂. Parni metanski reforming (SMR) trenutno je najrasprostranjenija metoda proizvodnje vodika, dok "plavi" vodik, iako koristi fosilna goriva, smanjuje emisije hvatanjem i skladištenjem CO₂. Proizvedeni vodik se koristi u gorivnim ćelijama gdje elektrokemijske reakcije proizvode električnu energiju, vodu i toplinu kao jedine nusprodukte, što predstavlja značajan odmak od fosilnih goriva koja ispuštaju ugljični dioksid i druge štetne emisije. Vodik ima potencijal znatno povećati energetsku efikasnost i smanjiti ovisnost o konvencionalnim izvorima energije. Unatoč prednostima, šira upotreba vodika još uvijek zahtijeva rješavanje tehničkih i ekonomskih prepreka. Cilj ovog rada je pružiti dublji uvid u potencijale i izazove vodika kao alternativnog goriva, analizirati postojeće tehnologije, integraciju u energetske sustave te ekonomske i sigurnosne aspekte implementacije. Vodik predstavlja obećavajući pravac u ostvarivanju održive energetske budućnosti, ali je neophodno daljnje istraživanje i razvoj kako bi se maksimizirao njegov potencijal.Hydrogen is considered a key element in the search for clean and sustainable energy solutions due to its ability to produce energy with minimal emissions of harmful gases.
The lightest element in the universe, hydrogen is extremely attractive for decarbonizing
hard-to-transform sectors such as transport and industry. However, the use of hydrogen as a fuel faces challenges such as production, storage, distribution and safety. The global energy crisis and climate change have stimulated intensive research for its wider application. Hydrogen can be produced in a number of ways, including electrolysis and thermochemical processes, where "green" hydrogen, obtained from renewable sources, is the purest form. On the other hand, "grey" and "brown" hydrogen are produced from fossil fuels, often with large amounts of CO₂. Steam methane reforming (SMR) is currently the most widespread method of hydrogen production, while "blue" hydrogen, although using fossil fuels, reduces emissions by capturing and storing CO₂. The produced hydrogen is used in fuel cells where electrochemical reactions produce electricity, water and heat as the only by-products, which represents a significant departure from fossil fuels that release carbon dioxide and other harmful emissions. Hydrogen has the potential to significantly increase energy efficiency and reduce dependence on conventional energy sources. Despite the advantages, the wider use of hydrogen still requires solving technical and economic obstacles. The aim of this paper is to provide a deeper insight into the potential and challenges of hydrogen as an alternative fuel, to analyze existing technologies, integration into energy systems, and economic and safety aspects of implementation. Hydrogen represents a promising direction in achieving a sustainable energy future, but further research and development is necessary to maximize its potential