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HPV vaccines
No full textLjudski papilomavirus (engl. Human papillomavirus, HPV) je član porodice
Papillomaviridae, koja obuhvaća male viruse bez ovojnice građene od
dvostruke DNA. Dok većina papilomavirusa uzrokuje dobroćudne izrasline,
neki tipovi su povezani s razvojem karcinoma u epitelnim tkivima. Postoji
više od 200 tipova HPV-a, a 12 od njih je definirano kao onkogeni, dok je 8
prepoznato kao vjerojatno ili moguće onkogeni. HPV-16 i HPV-18 odgovorni
su za približno 70% karcinoma vrata maternice i još veći postotak drugih,
povezanih karcinoma. Mukozni tipovi prenose se spolnim putem, najčešće
kontaktom koža na kožu, i predstavljaju najčešću spolno prenosivu
infekciju. Iako većina infekcija HPV-om nestane unutar dvije godine bez
izazivanja kliničke bolesti, dugotrajne infekcije onkogenim ili visokorizičnim
tipovima mogu dovesti do prekanceroznih lezija i raka. Profilaktička cjepiva
protiv HPV-a pružila su veliku zaštitu protiv nekoliko onkogenih sojeva HPV
a, aktivirajući humoralnu imunost i proizvodnju virus-neutralizirajućih
protutijela. Cjepiva koja su trenutno dostupna temelje se na česticama
sličnima virusu (engl. Virus like particles, VLP), nanočesticama koje se
spontano sastavljaju od virusnih strukturnih proteina, oponašajući izvorne
viruse, ali ne sadrže materijal za replikaciju. HPV kapsidni protein L1 može
se samoorganizirati u obliku VLP-ova, koji su morfološki slični virionima i
sposobni su inducirati visoki titar neutralizirajućih protutijela. Humoralni
odgovor protiv L1 proteina HPV-a je primarni mehanizam djelovanja
profilaktičkih cjepiva. Robustan odgovor protutijela može se postići
kombiniranjem antigena s adjuvantima koji služe kako bi se povećala
imunogenost cjepiva.
Cjepiva protiv HPV-a predstavljaju veliki napredak u borbi protiv bolesti
povezanih s ovim virusom. Nastavak istraživanja i cijepljenje ključni su za
poboljšanje zdravstvenih ishoda. Rezultati u Hrvatskoj ukazuju na potrebu
povećanja stope cijepljenja protiv HPV-a podizanjem svijesti o učinkovitosti
cjepiva i provođenjem strategija za poboljšanje dostupnosti cijepljenja.Human papillomavirus (HPV) belongs to the Papillomaviridae family, a group
of small, non-enveloped viruses composed of double-stranded DNA. While
most papillomaviruses cause benign growths, certain types are associated
with the development of carcinomas in epithelial tissues. There are over
200 types of HPV, with 12 defined as oncogenic and 8 recognized as
probably oncogenic. About 70% of cervical cancers are caused by HPV-16
and HPV-18, and they also have a greater influence on other related
cancers. Mucosal types are transmitted sexually, most commonly through
skin-to-skin contact, and represent the most common sexually transmitted
infection. While most HPV infections resolve on their own within two years
without causing any health issues, infections that persist with high-risk or
cancer causing types can result in precancerous changes and eventually
cancer. Prophylactic HPV vaccines have offered protection against various
cancer-causing strains of HPV by stimulating humoral immunity and
inducing the production of antibodies that neutralize the virus. Currently
available vaccines are made using virus-like particles (VLPs), which are
nanoparticles that spontaneously assemble from viral structural proteins,
resembling real viruses but without replication material. The HPV capsid
protein L1 can self-assemble into VLPs that are morphologically similar to
virions and capable of inducing a high titer of neutralizing antibodies. The
primary mechanism of action for prophylactic HPV vaccines is the humoral
response targeting the L1 protein of the virus. A strong antibody response
is generated by combining antigens with adjuvants, which enhance the
vaccine's immunogenicity.
HPV vaccines represent a significant advancement in combating diseases
associated with this virus. Continued research and vaccination are essential
for improving health outcomes. Results in Croatia indicate a need to
increase HPV vaccination rates by raising awareness of the vaccine's
effectiveness and implementing strategies to improve vaccine accessibility
Interakcije između agregacije EHD3 proteina povezane sa schizofrenijom i citoskeleta
No full textSchizophrenia is a serious mental illness that is characterized by altered
behaviour and a diminished ability to perceive reality. In addition to genetic
and environmental risk factors, protein aggregation is also considered to be
a potential risk factor in the development of schizophrenia. Protein
aggregation and misfolding happens when cellular systems are disturbed by
internal and external stresses. One of the proteins that has been found to
aggregate in the brains of schizophrenia patients is EH-domain containing
3 (EHD3). This belongs to the C-terminal Eps15 homology domain (EHD)
protein family, together with the EHD1, EHD2 and EHD4 proteins. EHD3 is
involved in the regulation of endosome to Golgi transport, recycling, and in
promotion of dopaminergic transmission. Previous research in our lab
showed that full length EHD3 aggregated in SH-SY5Y cells, while two
truncated versions, containing amino acids 1-399 and 1-434 did not. Also,
the EH domain alone (amino acids 435-535), when expressed individually
did not aggregate. The conclusion was that more than one region influences
EHD3 aggregation. The EH domain is necessary for the initialization of EHD3
aggregation, but other structural regions interact and recruit other
molecules that make up the aggregates. In my thesis, we wanted to test
the association of EHD3 with actin and how it affects the cytoskeleton. We
also wanted to determine how other proteins from EHD family behave inside
cells and whether they also form aggregates. Using ultracentrifuge assay, I
saw that full length EHD3 co-segregates and is connected with actin inside
cells, which I also confirmed using fluorescent microscopy. In
ultracentrifuge assay, EHD3 fragments 1-399 and 1-434 did not show
association with actin, while in fluorescent microscopy they showed
association with actin cytoskeleton. Further research is needed in this field.
In blinded, quantified, microscopy assay, EHD3 showed aggregate-like
structures in most of the cells, while EHD1 showed this pattern in
approximately half of cells. EHD2 and EHD4 showed low signs of potential
aggregation. From this we can conclude that, while EHD3 is the only EHD
protein confirmed to aggregate, data for EHD1 show its potential for
aggregation. Understanding of aggregation of EHD proteins processes and
physiological functions may facilitate a better understanding of the
pathology and possible causes of schizophrenia developmentShizofrenija je ozbiljna mentalna bolest koju karakterizira promjena
ponašanja i smanjena sposobnost percepcije stvarnosti. Osim genetskih i
okolišnih rizičnih čimbenika, agregacija proteina također se smatra
potencijalnim čimbenikom za razvoj shizofrenije. Agregacija i pogrešno
slaganje proteina događa se kada su stanični sustavi i procesi poremećeni
unutarnjim i vanjskim stresovima. EHD3 je jedan od proteina za koji je
utvrđeno da agregira u mozgu pacijenata sa shizofrenijom. Taj protein
pripada obitelji proteina C-terminalne homološke domene Eps15 (EHD),
zajedno s proteinima EHD1, EHD2 i EHD4. EHD3 je uključen u regulaciju
transporta endosoma u Golgijevo tijelo, recikliranje te promicanje prijenosa
dopaminergika. Prethodna istraživanja u našem laboratoriju dokazala su da
EHD3 agregira u SH-SY5Y stanicama, dok njegove dvije skraćene verzije (s
aminokiselinama 1-399 i 1-434) ne agregiraju. Također, kada se EH domena
(aminokiseline 435-535) ekspresirala pojedinačno u stanici, nije pokazala
znakove agregacije. Donesen je zaključak da je više regija uključeno u
proces agregacije EHD3 proteina. EH domena neophodna je za inicijalizaciju
agregacije, ali druge strukturne regije međusobno djeluje i regrutiraju
druge molekule koje čine agregate. U ovom smo radu željeli testirati
povezanost EHD3 proteina s aktinom te utvrditi kako utječe na citoskelet
stanica. Također, promatrali smo kako se drugi proteini iz EHD obitelji
ponašaju unutar stanica i tvore li agregate. Koristeći ultracentrifugu, otkrila
sam da EHD3 protein ko-agregira te je povezan s aktinom unutar stanica.
Isto sam utvrdila i uz pomoć fluorescentne mikroskopije. Kod testa
ultracentrifuge, EHD3 fragmenti 1-399 i 1-434 nisu pokazali povezanost a
aktinom dok su kod fluorescentne mikroskopije pokazali povezanost s
aktinskim citoskeletom. U ovom su području potrebna daljnja istraživanja.
U slijepom, kvantificiranom testu mikroskopije, EHD3 protein pokazao je
strukture slične agregatima u većini stanica dok je EHD1 pokazao taj
obrazac kod polovice stanica. S druge strane, EHD2 i EHD4 proteini pokazali
su male znakove potencijalne agregacije. Iz ovih rezultata možemo
zaključiti da, iako je EHD3 jedini EHD protein za koji je potvrđeno da
agregira, podaci za EHD1 pokazuju njegov potencijal za agregaciju.
Razumijevanje procesa agregacije i fizioloških funkcija EHD proteina može
olakšati bolje razumijevanje patologije te omogućiti bolje razumijevanje
uzroka razvoja shizofrenije
Visualization of proliferating immune cells in a mouse model of metabolic associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD)
No full textModerni način života često dovodi do stresa, neaktivnosti i manjka sna, što rezultira lošim prehrambenim navikama bogatim rafiniranim šećerima i zasićenim mastima. Dugotrajna izloženost takvom stilu života može dovesti do povišenog kolesterola, triglicerida, šećera u krvi, inzulinske rezistencije i visokog krvnog tlaka, što se zajednički naziva metaboličkim sindromom. Metabolički uzrokovana bolest steatotične jetre (engl. metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease, MASLD) predstavlja manifestaciju ovog sindroma, a obilježava je nakupljanje masti u jetri. MASLD napreduje kroz različite faze, od steatoze, preko fibroze pa sve do ciroze. Opći je konsenzus da aktivacija proupalnih imunosnih efektora igra ključnu ulogu u tranziciji steatoze u steatohepatitis uzrokovan metaboličkom disfunkcijom (engl. metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis, MASH). Cilj diplomskog rada bio je dokazati da zapadnjačka prehrana kod miševa dovodi do razvoja MASH-a, prvenstveno infiltracijom aktivnih proliferirajućih imunosnih stanica u jetri. Korištenjem imunohistokemijskih i imunofluorescentnih metoda identificirali smo te stanice, dok je protočna citometrija omogućila detaljnu analizu njihovih podtipova. U miševa hranjenih prehranom SSD, otkrili smo histopatološke promjene u jetri koje odgovaraju onima u MASH pacijenata. Imunohistokemijska bojenja pokazala su prisutnost CD45+ i Ki-67+ imunosnih stanica u tkivu jetre, dok je imunofluorescencija potvrdila dvostruko pozitivne stanice. Kod miševa na SSD prehrani primijetili smo povećanu infiltraciju imunosnih stanica, posebno unutar upalnih žarišta, s većim brojem CD45+Ki-67+ stanica. Također, rezultati protočne citometrije pokazali su značajan porast proliferirajućih CD8+ limfocita T, NK stanica i γδ limfocita T u jetrama SSD miševa u usporedbi s kontrolnom grupom što ukazuje na aktivnu upalu u jetri uzrokovanu SSD prehranom. Ove promjene sugeriraju da prehrana SSD značajno utječe na proliferaciju i dinamiku leukocita u tkivu jetre, potencijalno mijenjajući imunosni odgovor i pridonoseći progresiji MASLD-a. Ovi rezultati mogli bi usmjeriti buduća istraživanja na imunološke aspekte bolesti, što bi pomoglo u razvoju novih dijagnostičkih i terapijskih strategija za MASLD.The modern lifestyle often leads to stress, inactivity, and lack of sleep, resulting in poor eating habits rich in refined sugars and saturated fats. Prolonged exposure to this lifestyle can cause elevated cholesterol, triglycerides, blood sugar, insulin resistance, and high blood pressure, which are collectively referred to as metabolic syndrome. Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) is a manifestation of this syndrome and is characterized by fat accumulation in the liver. MASLD includes various stages, ranging from steatosis to cirrhosis. It is widely accepted that the activation of pro-inflammatory immune effectors plays a key role in the transition from steatosis to metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH).
This thesis aimed to demonstrate that a Western diet in mice leads to the development of MASH, primarily through the infiltration of actively proliferating immune cells into the liver. Using immunohistochemical and immunofluorescent methods, these cells were identified, while flow cytometry provided detailed analysis of their subtypes. In SSD-fed mice, we discovered histopathological changes in the liver resembling those observed in MASH patients. Immunohistochemical staining revealed the presence of CD45+ and Ki-67+ immune cells in the liver tissue, and immunofluorescence confirmed the presence of double-positive cells. In SSD-fed mice, we observed increased immune cell infiltration, particularly within inflammatory foci, with a higher number of CD45+Ki-67+ cells. Additionally, flow cytometry results showed a significant increase in proliferating CD8+ T lymphocytes, NK cells and γδ T lymphocytes in the livers of SSD-fed mice compared to the control group indicating active liver inflammation caused by the SSD diet.
These changes suggest that the SSD diet significantly affects leukocyte proliferation and dynamics within liver, potentially altering the immune response and contributing to the progression of MASLD. These findings may direct future research toward the immunological aspects of the disease, aiding in the development of new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for MASLD
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor: a potential biomarker in diagnostics and treatment of neurological and psychiatric diseases
No full textMoždani neurotrofni čimbenik (BDNF, engl. brain derived neurotrophic factor) je protein koji igra ključnu ulogu u održavanju neuroplastičnosti, sinaptičkoj plastičnosti, razvoju mozga i preživljavanju neurona. Zbog toga je predmet različitih istraživanja zbog potencijalne uloge kao biomarker u neurološkim i psihijatrijskim bolestima poput depresije, shizofrenije, posttraumatskog stresnog poremećaja, poremećaja hranjenja, Huntingtonove, Parkinsonove i Alzheimerove bolesti. S patogenezom ovih bolesti povezane su smanjene ili povećane razine BDNF-a u krvi i mozgu, sugerirajući da bi praćenje i prilagodba njegovih razina moglo biti koristan alat za uvid u dijagnozu i razvoj bolesti, kao i njihovo liječenje. BDNF putem p75 neurotrofinskog receptora (p75NTR) i tropomiozin-receptor kinaza B receptora (TrkB) aktivira različite signalne puteve koji reguliraju funkciju i preživljavanje živčanih stanica, a njihova disfunkcija doprinosi razvoju neuropsihijatrijskih oboljenja. Štoviše, niže razine BDNF-a često su povezane sa smanjenjem veličine hipokampusa koji igra bitnu ulogu u pamćenju i učenju. Osim razina BDNF-a, bitnim faktorom patogeneze ovih bolesti smatra se i Val66Met polimorfizam nukleotida u BDNF genu. Međutim, postoji nekoliko ograničenja u korištenju BDNF-a kao biomarkera koja uključuju spol, dob, tjelesnu aktivnost, okolinu i nedostatak standardiziranih protokola za mjerenje. Istraživanja predlažu da bi modulacija signalizacije BDNF-a, kao i regulacija njegove koncentracije u krvi i mozgu mogla biti potencijalna terapeutska strategija. Stoga se predlažu lijekovi koji povećavaju razine BDNF-a i/ili stimuliraju njegove receptore. Osim lijekova, predlaže se i fizička aktivnost koja dokazano prirodno povećava razine ovog proteina. Zaključno, BDNF ima veliki potencijal kao biomarker u dijagnostici i neinvazivnom liječenju neuropsihijatrijskih bolesti. Stoga je potrebno razviti nove preciznije metode kako bi se prevladala postojeća ograničenja s ciljem korištenja ovog otkrića u budućim terapijskim i dijagnostičkim pristupima.Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a protein important for its role in maintaining neuroplasticity, synaptic plasticity, brain development and neuron survival. As such, it has become the focus of various studies due to its potential role as a biomarker in neurological and psychiatric disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder, schizophrenia, depression, eating disorders, Parkinson's, Huntington’s and Alzheimer’s diseases. Altered levels of BDNF in the blood and brain are linked to the development of those diseases, suggesting that monitoring and adjusting its levels might serve as an effective tool for understanding diagnosis, disease progression and treatment. BDNF activates various signaling pathways through its receptors, p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) and tropomyosin receptor kinase (TrkB), regulating the function and survival of nerve cells. Dysfunction in those pathways contributes to the development of neuropsychiatric disorders. Moreover, lower levels of BDNF are often linked to a decrease in hippocampal size, which is crucial for efficient memory and learning. In addition to BDNF levels, a key factor in pathogenesis of these disorders is the Val66Met nucleotide polymorphism in BDNF gene. However, there are several limitations to using BDNF as a biomarker, including factors as sex, age, exercise, environment and the lack of standardized measurement protocols. Research suggest that modulating BDNF signaling, as well as regulating its concentration in the blood and brain, could be a promising therapeutic strategy. Therefore, medications that elevate BDNF levels and/or stimulate its receptors are proposed. In addition to medications, physical activity is also suggested, for its proven impact on natural increase of this protein levels. In conclusion, BDNF holds great potential as a biomarker in the diagnostic and non-invasive therapy for neuropsychiatric disorders. Regardless substantial supporting research, new and more precise methods need to be developed to overcome existing limitations and to make this discovery applicable in future therapeutic and diagnostic approaches
Plant based drugs for treatment of upper respiratory tract diseases
No full textBolesti gornjih dišnih puteva jedne su od najčešćih bolesti koje svakodnevno pogađaju veliki broj ljudi. Te bolesti uključuju: običnu prehladu, upalu sinusa, nazalne polipe, upalu grla, upalu epiglotisa te upalu ždrijela. Za liječenje tih bolesti od davnina su se koristile razne biljne vrste koje i dan danas imaju važnu ulogu u liječenju tih bolesti. U ovome radu ukratko su opisane najčešće bolesti gornjih dišnih puteva kao i njihova epidemiologija. Glavna tema rada su četiri često korištene biljke, ginseng, kineski androfagis, ehinaceja i ljekovita pelargonija, odnosno njihov mehanizam djelovanja u liječenju bolesti gornjih dišnih puteva. Sve ove biljke imaju utjecaj na bakterijske i virusne uzročnike te pojačavaju rad imunosnog sustava u borbi protiv tih patogena. Važnost poznavanja načina na koje aktivne tvari iz ovih biljaka djeluju je u tome što tim znanjem se može nastaviti istraživati na području farmakognozije i biotehnologije.Diseases of the upper respiratory tract are one of the most common diseases that affect a large number of people every day. These diseases include the common cold, sinusitis, nasal polyps, sore throat, epiglottis and pharyngitis. For the treatment of these diseases, various plant species have been used since ancient times, which even today play an important role in the treatment of these diseases. This paper briefly describes the most common diseases of the upper respiratory tract as well as their epidemiology. The main topic of the page is four frequently used herbs, ginseng, Andrographis paniculata, Ehinacea purpurea and Pelargonium sidoides i.e. their mechanism of action in the treatment of upper respiratory tract diseases. All these plants have an effect on bacterial and viral pathogens and strengthen the work of the immune system in the fight against these pathogens. The importance of knowing how active substances from these plants work is that this knowledge can be used to continue research in the field of pharmacognosy and biotechnology
Micronutrition in sports medicine
No full textZa sportaše postoje brojni faktori koje moraju uzeti u obzir kada se žele
natjecati na profesionalnoj razini, ali i da bi se zdravo i dugo mogli baviti
sportom. Jedan od tih faktora je prehrana odnosno nutricija te se osim
makronutijenata poput ugljikohidrata i proteina pažnja mora posvetiti i
mikronutriciji, spojevima i molekulama prisutnim u vrlo malim količinama,
no i dalje iznimno bitnim za funkciju i održavanje dobre forme.
Mikronutijenti koji se u ovom radu obrađuju su kreatin, karnitin, karnozin,
vitamini A, B6, D, E i K i minerali magnezij, kalcij, fosfor, željezo i cink.
Postoje naravno i drugi mikronutrijenti važni za život i funkciju tijela, no
ovdje su izdvojeni najbitniji specifično za sportski performans
Identifikacija genetskih i epigenetskih promjena povezanih administracijom metamfetamina u D. melnaogaster
No full text
In Silico Design of Alkhumra Virus NS3 Protease Inhibitors
No full textAlkhumra virus, a zoonotic pathogen in the Flaviviridae family, causes severe hemorrhagic fever in humans. Despite decoding its genetic sequence, vaccines and drugs remain unavailable. Given its crucial role in virion maturation, the NS2B/NS3 protease presents a promising therapeutic target. Here, we investigate the structural and dynamical changes induced by NS2B cofactor binding to NS3 protein through all-atom molecular dynamics simulations. The NS2B cofactor reduces the flexibility of NS3, particularly in regions in contact with NS2B, while the secondary structure remains unchanged. From an energetic perspective, the main driving forces in cofactor binding are nonbonding van der Waals and electrostatic interactions. We found that the protonation states of the catalytic triad residues significantly influence the geometry of the active pocket. Furthermore, a drug repurposing campaign utilizing ensemble docking and molecular dynamics simulations identified three compounds from the Drug- Bank database as potential NS2B/NS3 protease inhibitors. The catalytic serine residue with a deprotonated hydroxyl group exhibited the greatest contribution to the free energy of binding. This comprehensive analysis sheds light on the molecular interactions underlying ligand binding to NS2B/NS3, providing valuable insights for the development of effective inhibitors.Baza podataka sadrži trajektorije MD simulacija proteaze virusa Alkhumra i kompleksa proteaza:ligand. Ligandi su molekule iz DrugBank baze podataka. Simulacije su rađene na superračunalu Supek, koristeći programski paket Amber22
Porphyrin-peptide conjugates for photodynamic therapy
No full textPorfirini su ključni fotosenzibilizatori (PS) u fotodinamičkoj terapiji (PDT) zbog svoje sposobnosti generiranja singletnog kisika (1O2), što ih čini korisnim za liječenje tumora. PDT djeluje kombinacijom svjetla, PS-a i kisika te pokreće oksidativni stres koji selektivno uništava stanice tumora. Istraživanja su usmjerena na konjugaciju porfirina s peptidima kako bi se poboljšala njihova topljivost, stabilnost i selektivnost prema tumorskom tkivu. Peptidni konjugati povećavaju selektivnost i učinkovitost PS-a, dok smanjuju štetne učinke na zdravo tkivo. Ono što predstavlja velik izazov jest agregacija porfirina jer smanjuje njihovu topljivost, biodistribuciju i fotofizička svojstva, čime se kompromitira učinkovitost PDT-a. Porfirini se mogu vezati na peptide kovalentnim, koordinacijskim ili ne-kovalentnim vezama, pri čemu svaki pristup nudi prednosti u stvaranju stabilnih i funkcionalnih konjugata. Razvijene su različite metode sinteze porfirin-peptidnih konjugata, uključujući sintezu u čvrstoj fazi (SPPS) i konjugaciju u otopini. SPPS metoda omogućuje učinkovitiju sintezu peptida i njihovo naknadno vezivanje s porfirinima, dok sinteza u otopini koristi prirodne funkcionalne skupine peptida za izravnu vezu s porfirinskim derivatima. Ovi konjugati igraju ključnu ulogu u PDT-u i drugim biomedicinskim primjenama, jer omogućuju precizno ciljano djelovanje na tumorsko tkivo, povećavajući učinkovitost i smanjujući toksičnost terapije.
Napredak u sintezi porfirinsko-peptidnih konjugata otvara nove mogućnosti za fotodinamičku terapiju, dijagnostiku i dostavu lijekova, s potencijalom za daljnje poboljšanje tretmana protiv raka i drugih bolesti.Porphyrins are crucial photosensitizers (PS) in photodynamic therapy (PDT) due to their ability to generate singlet oxygen (¹O₂), which makes them instrumental in tumor treatment. PDT functions through a combination of light, PS, and oxygen, triggering oxidative stress that selectively destroys tumor cells. Current research is increasingly focused on conjugating porphyrins with peptides to improve their solubility, stability, and tumor-specific targeting. Peptide conjugates enhance the selectivity and effectiveness of PS while reducing harmful effects on healthy tissues. However, a persistent challenge is the aggregation of porphyrins, which diminishes their solubility, biodistribution, and photophysical properties, thereby reducing PDT's therapeutic efficiency. Porphyrins can bind to peptides through covalent, coordinative, or non-covalent interactions, with each approach offering specific advantages in creating stable, functional conjugates. Different synthetic methods, such as solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) and solution-phase conjugation, have been developed to create these conjugates. SPPS enables efficient peptide synthesis followed by subsequent attachment to porphyrins, while solution-phase synthesis leverages the inherent functional groups of peptides for direct conjugation to porphyrin derivatives. These porphyrin-peptide conjugates are integral to PDT and other biomedical applications by facilitating precise tumor targeting, thereby enhancing therapeutic outcomes and reducing toxicity.
Recent progress in the synthesis of porphyrin-peptide conjugates is opening new avenues in photodynamic therapy, diagnostics, and drug delivery, with great potential to further improve cancer treatment and other therapeutic interventions