Journal of Lithic Studies
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A game of two halves: Looking for evidence for both embedded and direct procurement in a simulated dataset
Full text linkThe concepts of embedded and direct procurement have become weighted with extra baggage over the years. In embedded procurement, lithics are obtained along with other resources, while direct procurement involves a deliberate trip to the source for the sole purpose of obtaining that raw material. Lewis Binford suggested that direct procurement means something went wrong (a sign of poor planning), and that embedded procurement is the norm. Other authors found valid reasons why direct procurement could be deliberate, planned, and beneficial. Regardless, the two have often been seen as diametrically opposed, and applied to interpretations of mobility and lithic procurement as if they are mutually exclusive of one another. They have also been variously conflated with expedient and curated technology, the use of local vs. exotic raw materials, and so on. The often site-centric vision of archaeologists (we find it hard to see that people may have been passing through a site, not based there and going out and coming back), can further confuse the issue. The most important problem, however, is: how can we tell the difference between embedded and direct procurement from the stone tools collected at an archaeological site? We created the scenario of a site with various proportions of stone tools from different sources. In order to not influence the site characteristics through a priori expectations, we randomly assigned source qualities and percentages in the assemblage, along with the distances and directions of each source relative to the site. Then each author analysed those data from one of two points of view: LW convinced in advance that the evidence supported embedded lithic procurement, and PM equally certain that a direct strategy was apparent. In both cases, the authors felt they had sufficient “justification” to bolster their point of view and build a strong case for their raw material procurement strategy. This exercise gave some insight into the usefulness and limitations of these two concepts as heuristic devices, as they continue to be a major influence on anyone trying to interpret lithic procurement
Obsidian lithic technology: Chaîne opératoire and symbolic meaning in the Northern Hualfín Valley (Northwest Argentina) during the Late Inka period
Full text linkThe main objective of this research is to analyse the lithic technology applied to obsidian, a raw material popular amongst pre-Columbian populations from Northwestern Argentina (NWA) because of its social and symbolic value. The analysed assemblage comes from the archaeological site of Villavil 2 (VV2), located in the Hualfín Valley (Catamarca, Argentina) and distant ca. 100 - 200 kms from the nearest sources of this raw material. VV2 was discovered in 2015 by one of the authors and shows a particular presence of rock art which had not previously been registered in this area. The site was associated to the Late and Inka Period (ca. 10th - 16th centuries CE). So far, we suggest that this was a place of temporal, but periodical use that best fits with what we would call a ceremonial space.
The assemblage comprises the totality of obsidian elements collected from both superficial and stratigraphic contexts. It was divided into three typological classes: tools (projectile points), flakes with natural sharp edges (FNSE) and waste products (WP). We did not identify the presence of cores. The analysis considered the following variables: knapping methods and techniques, size, amount of cortex, flake type and edge types.
At VV2, points are the only retouched tools made of obsidian. They correspond to the triangular unstemmed concave-based type, very common during the Late-Inka Periods, and they were shaped using the perimetral bifacial pressure technique, possibly from flake blanks. FNSEs’ size is small, and they present scarce cortex. On the other hand, the abundance of very small-sized WPs is remarkable. They were found in the same stratigraphic context and attest a complete finish of the points (edge retouch).
The results let us infer that the point-shaping tasks were carried out in situ. Moreover, the implemented technology involved both major production efforts and skills, that contrast with those involved in local raw material knapping. It is possible that this curated strategy was not related to the difficulty of accessing this allochthonous material. Instead, these choices could reflect social and symbolic meanings. According to linguistic and ethnohistoric information, the obsidian brightness and transparency are propitiatory to win the favour of the w\u27akas. Furthermore, in NWA the obsidian long-distance exchange is an ancient pre-Columbian tradition that lasted for a long time. Obtaining obsidian could display the ability of a social group to access distant resources and legitimize their political status. Nevertheless, we cannot forget that this raw material also was very important for making different artefacts for subsistence activities
Virtual Trip to the Abric Romaní site and its lithic procurement areas
Full text linkThis paper introduces the virtual field trip organised on the occasion of the 13th International Symposium on Knappable Materials in Tarragona from 4th to 6th October 2021, showing the Abric Romaní site (NE Iberian Peninsula) and the chert procurement areas located within a 30 km radius.
The Abric Romaní section consists of a general presentation of the Middle Palaeolithic site, including a brief description of its 50 m stratigraphic sequence, where more than 20 archaeological levels have been identified dating from 110 to 39 ka BP, and some of the main traits of the archaeological assemblages have been recovered. This was followed by an introduction of the siliceous outcrops of the Panadella cherts approximately 24 km from the Abric Romaní; the Sant Martí de Tous chert outcrops 16 km away and the Valldeperes and Ca l’Alemany chert outcrops at distances of 24 and 25 km, respectively. In all cases, the geological formations, as well as the main chert macroscopic and microscopic characteristics, are described.
This paper yields the most relevant aspects of a field trip that had to be recorded due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but which brought us back together and facilitated the presentation of the main source areas frequented by the Neanderthals groups of this referential site.En este trabajo se presenta la salida de campo virtual organizada con motivo del 13th International Symposium on Knappable Materials organizado en Tarragona del 4 al 6 de octubre de 2021, en el que se muestra el yacimiento de Abric Romaní (NE de la Península Ibérica) y las zonas de captación de sílex situadas en un radio de 30 km.
La sección del Abric Romaní consiste en una presentación general del yacimiento del Paleolítico Medio, incluyendo una breve descripción de su secuencia estratigráfica de 50 m, donde se han identificado más de 20 niveles arqueológicos datados entre 110 y 39 ka BP, y se presentan de manera general los principales rasgos de los conjuntos arqueológicos. A continuación, se han introducido los afloramientos silíceos de los sílex de la Panadella a unos 24 km del Abric Romaní; los afloramientos de sílex de Sant Martí de Tous a 16 km y los afloramientos de sílex de Valldeperes y Ca l\u27Alemany a distancias de 24 y 25 km, respectivamente. En todos los casos se describen las formaciones geológicas, así como las principales características macroscópicas y microscópicas del sílex.
En este trabajo se recogen los aspectos más relevantes de la salida de campo que tuvo que ser grabada debido a la pandemia del COVID-19, pero que nos volvió a reunir y facilitó la presentación de las principales zonas de captación silícea frecuentadas por los grupos neandertales de este yacimiento en cuestión
Automated rapid artefact surface area measurement from imagery with computer vision
Full text linkAutomated surface area measurements have been of interest to archaeologists since digital imagery began allowing researchers to remotely collect artefact metrics. We present a method of automatically measuring 2D surface area from artefact planform images employing computer vision in Python. The Python script, provided as a .py file in supplementary data, creates boundaries around regions of relatively homogeneous pixels (artefacts) in the image. These bounded regions are called contours. A count of the number of pixels within each contour provides a surface area in pixels. A circular reference object provides a conversion factor for the contours, as well as a point of reference for geometric accuracy of outputs.
Measurements of 2D artefact surface area can be used in combination with measurements of length, width, thickness, and mass, or in some cases, replace such measurements. As presented, this technique provides utility to archaeology with applications to new documentation of artefacts, archived artefact images containing a scale, as well as landscape geoarchaeology and sedimentary contexts. Limitations of this type of surface area measurement include the requirement of the image background being of a solid colour heavily contrasting the artefacts being measured. Effectively, the background requirement limits deployment supporting collection of rapid field measurements from in-situ surface scatters without modification to the script or manipulation of the artefacts. Analytical applications utilizing this technique include studies of relative artefact abundance, shape and size class characterizations in artefact scatters, and redistribution of artefacts by geomorphological processes
Presence of the Solutrean on the North Eastern side of the Pyrenees: The case of Ruisseau de la Boulière 2
Full text linkUntil recently, the extreme Eastern part of the Northern Pyrenean Piedmont was a "vacuum" on the distribution map of the Solutrean. As a matter of fact, only two sites, the Embullas cave and Espassoles open-air site, reported the Solutrean on the Pyrénées-Orientales territory which covers an area of over 4000 square kilometers.
There is no explanation to justify this situation, since this zone is flanked by two important Solutrean areas. Indeed, further South, just beyond the Pyrenees there are a number of Solutrean sites in Spanish Catalonia: l’Arbreda and Reclau Viver caves in the Serinya region. For hundred and forty kilometers towards the North East, a set of remarkable Solutrean sites spread over Eastern Languedoc along the right bank of the Rhône: the Oullins, Chabot, Pâques and La Salpétrière caves in the Gard and Ardèche regions. Along the Mediterranean coast, between these two clusters, the Solutrean presence is more discreet, in the form of a discontinuous structure of sites (la Roque cave, the Col de Gigean site and the caves of Bize and La Crouzade).
The publication in 2014 of the open-air site of the Vigne Bertrand at Vingrau (Pyrénées Orientales, France), close to the Espassoles site, revived the interest for the Corbières zone, a low mountainous area near the Pyrenees.
The Ruisseau de la Boulière 2, located very close to the first two sites, confirms the Solutrean presence in this micro-zone. The Eastern Corbières appear today as an identifiable landmark of the Solutrean before crossing the Pyrenees. On the other hand, the discovery of a Montaut type bifacial asymmetrical point in the site leads us to suggest the hypothesis of east-western mobility, along the northern and/or southern Pyrenean piedmonts. The existence of such connections has already been reported on the basis of techno-typological convergences between Aragón (Cueva de Chaves) and Hérault (La Salpétrière) lithic industries
Cal Sitjo: A new Mesolithic to Neolithic sequence in a chert-rich region (Sant Martí de Tous, NE Iberia)
Full text linkCal Sitjo is a new archaeological sequence located in a chert-rich region of the NE Iberian Peninsula, in the town of Sant Martí de Tous (Anoia, Barcelona). The area has undergone significant anthropisation and several archaeological sites (e.g., Vilars de Tous), quarries and workshops for the exploitation of chert (e.g., La Guinardera) have been documented, corresponding to different periods. The abundance of chert made this region an almost obligatory passageway for hunter-gatherer communities such as those occupying the nearby cliffs of Cinglera del Capelló (Capellades), located at a direct distance of 15 km, as well as an ideal settlement for later farming communities.
Discovered in 2019, the first excavation campaign was carried out in the fall of 2020. Dates have been obtained from a known sequence of around 8 m, providing a chronological framework that ranges from the Mesolithic to the Middle Neolithic. The preliminary results of this excavation have brought to light lithics, ceramics and charcoals from the Neolithic levels (Levels 3 and 4), and faunal, lithic and charcoal remains from the Mesolithic levels (cleaning section).
Our preliminary results confirm that this sequence is an ideal location for a diachronic study of the evolution from the last hunter-gatherers to the first farmers, from a paleoenvironmental and technological perspective, as well as in terms of chert management and distribution in a territory with a great abundance of this raw material.Cal Sitjo es una nueva secuencia arqueológica situada en el en el municipio de Sant Martí de Tous (Anoia, Barcelona) al NE de la Península Ibérica en una región rica en sílex. La zona ha sufrido una importante antropización y se han documentado diversos yacimientos (p. ej., Vilars de Tous), canteras y talleres de explotación de sílex (p. ej., La Guinardera), correspondientes a diferentes épocas. La abundancia de sílex hizo de esta región un lugar de paso casi obligado para comunidades cazadoras-recolectoras como las que ocupaban los cercanos acantilados de la Cinglera del Capelló (Capellades), situados a una distancia en línea recta de 15 km, así como un asentamiento ideal para comunidades agrícolas posteriores.
Descubierto en 2019, la primera campaña de excavación se realizó en otoño de 2020. Se han obtenido dataciones por radiocarbono a partir de una secuencia conocida de unos 8 m, proporcionando un marco cronológico que va desde el Mesolítico hasta el Neolítico Medio. Los resultados preliminares de esta excavación han sacado a la luz restos de industria lítica, cerámica y carbones de los niveles neolíticos (niveles 3 y 4), y restos faunísticos, líticos y de carbones de los niveles mesolíticos (extraídos de la limpieza de la sección).
Nuestros resultados preliminares confirman que esta secuencia es un lugar idóneo para el estudio diacrónico de la evolución de los últimos cazadores-recolectores hasta los primeros agricultores, tanto desde el punto de vista paleoambiental y tecnológico, como desde el punto de vista de la gestión y distribución del sílex en un territorio con gran abundancia de esta materia prima
Teeth as lithic raw material: Experiments and use-wear analysis
Full text linkThis paper explores the archaeological and ethnographic evidence for use of rodent teeth as instruments, without direct modification (without manufacturing), in replacement of lithic raw materials. There are ethnographic records that describe the use of teeth, extracted from the jaw by direct manual grip or use of handles, and also used inside the jaw, which functions as a handle. Most of the teeth that appear in archaeological contexts have been studied within the framework of zooarchaeological analysis, however, there is the possibility that the dental pieces have been used as instruments, although this has rarely been considered.
The objective of this work is to present the results of a comparative study of experimental work, which we carried out with beaver (Castor canadensis) and capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), and to discuss their similarities and differences with the traces of use of lithic material. Through macro- and microscopic analysis (Stereomicroscope and metallographic microscope), we were able to characterize and explain the natural use signs of the teeth and differentiate them from the anthropic use signs produced when they are used as instruments. These traces on a macro- and microscopic scale, have different characteristics depending on the material worked and the kinematics used, and at the same time show similarities with the traces that occur on certain lithic materials. Consequently, we believe that it is possible to develop functional analyses on teeth of different animal species, and that these analyses will contribute to our knowledge about the life forms of past societies.Este trabajo explora la evidencia arqueológica y etnográfica sobre el uso de dientes de roedores, sin modificación directa (sin manufactura) como instrumentos, en reemplazo de materias primas líticas. Existen publicaciones que muestran su uso, extraídos de la mandíbula, en prehensión manual directa o enmangados, pero también usados dentro de la mandíbula que funcional como mango. Sin embargo hasta ahora, la mayoría de los dientes que aparecen en contextos arqueológicos han sido estudiados en el marco del análisis zooarqueológico. La posibilidad de que hayan sido utilizados como instrumentos es rara vez tenida en cuenta, en parte debido a que se pensaba que no era posible identificarlos entre los restos faunísticos.
En investigaciones previas desarrollamos un trabajo experimental preliminar utilizando dientes de dos grupos de roedores, castor (Castor canadensis) y capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), para procesar otros materiales. Observamos que era posible identificar rastros de uso, que permitirían reconocer tales instrumentos en sitios arqueológicos. Para hacerlo, utilizamos el mismo equipamiento y metodología que se emplea habitualmente para el análisis de rastros de uso en material lítico.
A lo largo de los años hemos desarrollado numerosas líneas experimentales sobre diferentes tipos de materias primas líticas. En este trabajo, efectuamos un estudio comparativo de ambas especies y discutimos sus similitudes y diferencias con el material lítico. De manera comparativa mostramos las huellas de uso desarrolladas en riolita, una materia prima lítica común de Tierra del Fuego. Los resultados muestran que los dientes utilizados como instrumentos son eficientes para trabajar diferentes materiales y con diferentes modos de uso. Mediante análisis macro y microscópico (lupa binocular y microscopio metalográfico), pudimos caracterizar y explicar los rastros de uso naturales de los dientes y diferenciarlos de los rastros de uso antrópicos producidos cuando se los utiliza como instrumentos. También observamos que el comportamiento de las dos partes del diente, la dentina y el esmalte, es diferente, ya que su composición es ligeramente diferente. Finalmente, pudimos caracterizar estos rastros de uso a escala macro y microscópica; tienen características diferentes según el material trabajado y cinemática, y al mismo tiempo muestran similitudes con los rastros que se producen sobre ciertos materiales líticos.
Las huellas producidas en los dientes al ser utilizados sobre diferentes materiales son muy similares a las producidas sobre materias primas líticas. La razón de ello es la composición química de los dientes. Las piezas dentales de todos los animales, incluido el ser humano, están formadas por bioapatita, un mineral producido por fenómenos biológicos, mientras que el esmalte dental está formado principalmente por fluoroapatita (Ca5(PO4)3F). La presencia de este mineral provoca la formación de microtrazas de desgaste similares a las de los minerales en cualquier materia prima lítica. Al mismo tiempo, pudimos comprobar que los dientes utilizados como herramientas son eficientes para trabajar diferentes materiales y con diversas cinemáticas. Esta observación confirma la eficacia de los dientes tal y como se informa en los registros etnográficos.
En consecuencia, creemos que es posible desarrollar análisis funcional sobre dientes de diferentes especies animales, y que estos análisis contribuirán a nuestro conocimiento sobre las formas de vida de las sociedades pasadas
SiLiBA: Building the geological chert lithotheque
Full text linkLithotheques collect and exhibit raw material used by human communities for the manufacturing of objects during the Prehistory and represents an important tool of their knowledge. These collections are essential in the procuring and provenance study of archaeological lithic industries.
This paper aims, firstly, to introduce SiLiBA, the lithotheque of the Earth and Geoenvironmental Sciences Department of the University of Bari Aldo Moro (Italy), as reference collection in the archaeological field studies, and secondly to propose guidelines and rules to build a lithotheque. The collection consists of about 900 pieces of geological cherts, which are the result of an expanded collecting action of primary and secondary cherts across Italy (Apulia, Basilicata, Sicily), Croatia, and Switzerland, belonging to formations from the Cretaceous to the Quaternary Period. All the chert samples were described according to the non-destructive multiparametric protocol for chert investigation (NM-PCI), providing a modular dataset of binary, ordinal and continuous variables which integrates petrographycal, micropaleontological, chemical and physical data. Such results were summarized in suitable reports, with also geographic coordinates, geological description and photographic documentation, in a digital database, which will be soon online. Cherts are grouped in 37 suitable boxes, following geographic hierarchical organisation and reporting informative labels. Some representative samples are exposed in the Earth Sciences Museum of the same University. Furthermore, the lithotheque is equipped by a dedicated laboratory which includes optical microscopes, a glossmeter and a spectrophotocolorimeter. The promotion in the last years was guaranteed by dissemination activities for educational and academic communities, including an interactive laboratory of experimental archaeology
Chert exploitation and production in Sardinia during the Neolithic
Full text linkThis research deals with the modes of chert exploitation in Sardinia during the Neolithic, combining information on major chert sources identified across the island with the technological analysis on several stratigraphic reliable series. It focuses on the changes in raw material selection and on the evolution of technological behaviours between the 6th and the 4th millennium BCE. The data collected in this work allowed us either to shed a light on the role this lithic resource played in the production systems of Neolithic communities in Sardinia, and to catch differences in the modes of procurement, depending on the chronology and location of the sites. During the Early Neolithic, lithic raw material circulation in Sardinia did not occur through organized networks, but it seems to have relied on the high mobility of the local groups. It is only at the end of the 5th millennium BCE that well-organized exchange circuits started operating. These involved mainly obsidian and this raw material apparently consolidated in time, due to the role carried out by San Ciriaco and Ozieri Middle to Late Neolithic cultures in the control and development of the Monte Arci obsidian supply. Chert was never involved in these networks and was mainly exploited locally and opportunistically. However, from the end of the Neolithic, some outcrop in the Oligo-Miocene basin of Perfugas was exploited on a supra-local scale and for a relatively short period