Journal of Eye Movement Research
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An eye tracking based framework for safety improvement of offshore operations
Full text linkOffshore drilling operations consist of complex and high-risk processes. Lack of situational awareness in drilling operations has become an important human factor issue that causes safety accidents. Prolonged work shifts and fatigue are some of the crucial issues that impact performance. Eye tracking technology can be used to distinguish the degree of awareness or alertness of participants that might be related to fatigue or onsite distractions. Oculomotor activity can be used to obtain visual cues that can quantify the drilling operators’ situational awareness that might enable us to develop warning alarms to alert the driller. Such systems can help reduce accidents and save non-productive time. In this paper, eye movement characteristics were investigated to differentiate the situational awareness between a representative expert and a group of novices using a scenario-based Virtual Reality Drilling Simulator. Significant visual oculomotor activity differences were identified between the expert and the novices that indicate an eye-tracking based system can detect the distraction and alertness exhibited by the workers. Results show promise on developing a framework which implements a real-time eye tracking technology in various drilling operations at drilling rigs and Real Time Operation Centers to improve process safety
Depression detection using virtual avatar communication and eye tracking system
Full text linkGlobally, depression is one of the most common mental health issues. Therefore, finding an effective way to detect mental health problems is an important subject for study in human-machine interactions. In order to examine the potential in using a virtual avatar communication and eye-tracking system to identify people as being with or without depression symptoms, this study has devised three research aims; 1) to understand the effect of different types of interviewers on eye gaze patterns, 2) to clarify the effect of neutral conversation topics on eye gaze, and 3) to compare eye gaze patterns between people with or without depression. Twenty-seven participants - fifteen in the control group and twelve in the depression symptoms group - were involved in this study and they were asked to talk to both a virtual avatar and human interviewers. Gaze patterns were recorded by an eye-tracking device during both types of interaction. The experiment results indicated significant differences in eye movements between the control group and depression symptoms group. Moreover, the identified differences were more pronounced when people with in depressed symptoms group were talking about neutral conversation topics rather than negative topics
Why 2D layout in 3D images matters: evidence from visual search and eye-tracking
Full text linkPrecise perception of three-dimensional (3D) images is crucial for a rewarding experience when using novel displays. However, the capability of the human visual system to perceive binocular disparities varies across the visual field meaning that depth perception might be affected by the two-dimensional (2D) layout of items on the screen. Nevertheless, potential difficulties in perceiving 3D images during free viewing have received only a little attention so far, limiting opportunities to enhance visual effectiveness of information presentation. The aim of this study was to elucidate how the 2D layout of items in 3D images impacts visual search and distribution of maintaining attention based on the analysis of the viewer’s gaze. Participants were searching for a target which was projected one plane closer to the viewer compared to distractors on a multi-plane display. The 2D layout of items was manipulated by changing the item distance from the center of the display plane from 2° to 8°. As a result, the targets were identified correctly when the items were displayed close to the center of the display plane, however, the number of errors grew with an increase in distance. Moreover, correct responses were given more often when subjects paid more attention to targets compared to other items on the screen. However, a more balanced distribution of attention over time across all items was characteristic of the incorrectly completed trials. Thus, our results suggest that items should be displayed close to each other in a 2D layout to facilitate precise perception of 3D images and considering distribution of attention maintenance based on eye-tracking might be useful in the objective assessment of user experience for novel displays
Mobile eye tracking applied as a tool for customer experience research in a crowded train station
Full text linkTrain stations have increasingly become crowded, necessitating stringent requirements in the design of stations and commuter navigation through these stations. In this study, we explored the use of mobile eye tracking in combination with observation and a survey to gain knowledge on customer experience in a crowded train station. We investigated the utilization of mobile eye tracking in ascertaining customers’ perception of the train station environment and analyzed the effect of a signalization prototype (visual pedestrian flow cues), which was intended for regulating pedestrian flow in a crowded underground passage. Gaze behavior, estimated crowd density, and comfort levels (an individual’s comfort level in a certain situation), were measured before and after the implementation of the prototype. The results revealed that the prototype was visible in conditions of low crowd density. However, in conditions of high crowd density, the prototype was less visible, and the path choice was influenced by other commuters. Hence, herd behavior appeared to have a stronger effect than the implemented signalization prototype in conditions of high crowd density. Thus, mobile eye tracking in combination with observation and the survey successfully aided in understanding customers’ perception of the train station environment on a qualitative level and supported the evaluation of the signalization prototype the crowded underground passage. However, the analysis process was laborious, which could be an obstacle for its practical use in gaining customer insights
Optical and motor changes associated with lighting and near vision tasks in electronic devices
Full text linkPurpose:
To assess optical and motor changes associated with near vision reading under different controlled lighting conditions performed with two different types of electronic screens. Methods: Twenty-four healthy subjects with a mean age of 22.9±2.3 years (18-33) participated in this study. An iPad and an e-ink reader were chosen to present calibrated text, and each task lasted 5 minutes evaluating both ambient illuminance level and luminance of the screens. Results:Eye-tracker data revealed a higher number of saccadic eye movements under minimum luminance than under maximum luminance. The results showed statistically significant differences between the iPad (p=0.016) and the e-ink reader (p=0.002). The length of saccades was also higher for the minimum luminance level for both devices: 6.2±2.8 mm and 8.2±4.2 mm (e-ink max vs min), 6.8±2.9 mm and 7.6±3.6 mm (iPad max vs min), and blinking rate increased significantly for lower lighting conditions. Conclusions: Performing reading tasks on electronic devices is highly influenced by both the configuration of the screens and the ambient lighting, meanwhile, low differences in visual quality that are transient in healthy young people, were found
The influence of eye model parameter variations on simulated eye-tracking outcomes
Full text linkThe simulated data used in eye-tracking-related research has been largely generated using normative eye models with little consideration of how the variations in eye biometry found in the population may influence eye-tracking outcomes. This study investigated the influence that variations in eye model parameters have on the ability of simulated data to predict real-world eye-tracking outcomes. The real-world experiments performed by two pertinent comparative studies were replicated in a simulated environment using a high-complexity stochastic eye model that includes anatomically accurate distributions of eye biometry parameters. The outcomes showed that variations in anterior corneal asphericity significantly influence simulated eye-tracking outcomes of both interpolation and model-based gaze estimation algorithms. Other, more commonly varied parameters such as the corneal radius of curvature and foveal offset angle had little influence on simulated outcomes.
Visual search patterns for multilingual word search puzzles, a pilot study
Full text linkWord search puzzles are recognized as a valid word recognition task. Eye gaze patterns have been investigated during visual search and reading, but the word search puzzle requires both searching and word recognition. This paper will discuss findings from an eye-tracking study of word search puzzles in three languages, of varying fluency for the participants. Results indicated that participants employ a search strategy that is somewhat dependent on language fluency and varies from a rigid, structured search pattern to randomly searching for a target word. The majority of gaze measurements are not significantly influenced by either word length or fluency of presented language, although mean fixation durations are longer for shorter words
Eye movements in response to different cognitive activities measured by eyetracking: a prospective study on some of the neurolinguistics programming theories
Full text linkThe eyes are in constant movement to optimize the interpretation of the visual scene by the brain. Eye movements are controlled by complex neural networks that interact with the rest of the brain. The direction of our eye movements could thus be influenced by our cognitive activity (imagination, internal dialogue, memory, etc.). A given cognitive activity could then cause the gaze to move in a specific direction (a brief movement that would be instinctive and unconscious).
Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP), which was developed in the 1970s by Richard Bandler and John Grinder (psychologist and linguist respectively), issued a comprehensive theory associating gaze directions with specific mental tasks. According to this theory, depending on the visual path observed, one could go back to the participant\u27s thoughts and cognitive processes. Although NLP is widely used in many disciplines (communication, psychology, psychotherapy, marketing, etc), to date, few scientific studies have examined the validity of this theory.
Using eye tracking, this study explores one of the hypotheses of this theory, which is one of the pillars of NLP on visual language. We created a protocol based on a series of questions of different types (supposed to engage different brain areas) and we recorded by eye tracking the gaze movements at the end of each question while the participants were thinking and elaborating on the answer. Our results show that 1) complex questions elicit significantly more eye movements than control questions that necessitate little reflection, 2) the movements are not random but are oriented in selected directions, according to the different question types, 3) the orientations observed are not those predicted by the NLP theory.
This pilot experiment paves the way for further investigations to decipher the close links between eye movements and neural network activities in the brain
Flipping the world upside down: Using eye tracking in virtual reality to study visual search in inverted scenes
Full text linkImage inversion is a powerful tool for investigating cognitive mechanisms of visual perception. However, studies have mainly used inversion in paradigms presented on two-dimensional computer screens. It remains open whether disruptive effects of inversion also hold true in more naturalistic scenarios. In our study, we used scene inversion in virtual reality in combination with eye tracking to investigate the mechanisms of repeated visual search through three-dimensional immersive indoor scenes. Scene inversion affected all gaze and head measures except fixation durations and saccade amplitudes. Our behavioral results, surprisingly, did not entirely follow as hypothesized: While search efficiency dropped significantly in inverted scenes, participants did not utilize more memory as measured by search time slopes. This indicates that despite the disruption, participants did not try to compensate the increased difficulty by using more memory. Our study highlights the importance of investigating classical experimental paradigms in more naturalistic scenarios to advance research on daily human behavior
Introduction to Special Thematic Issue, part 2 "Microsaccades: Empirical Research and Methodological Advances“
No full textMicrosaccades are at the interface between basic oculomotor phenomena and complex processes of cognitive functioning, and they also have been a challenge for subtle experimentation and adequate statistical analysis.
In the second part of the special thematic issue (for the first part see Martinez-Conde, Engbert, & Groner, 2020) the authors present a series of articles which demonstrate that microsaccades are still an interesting and rewarding area of scientific research the forefront of research in many areas of sensory, perceptual, and cognitive processes..
In their article “Pupillary and microsaccadic responses to cognitive effort and emotional arousal during complex decision making” Krejtz, Żurawska, Duchowski, & Wichary (2020) investigate pupillary and microsaccadic responses to information processing during multi-attribute decision making under affective priming. The participants were randomly assigned into three affective priming conditions (neutral, aversive, and erotic) and instructed to make discriminative decisions. As hypothesized by the authors, the results showed microsaccadic rate inhibition and pupillary dilation, depending on cognitive effort prior to decision and moderated by affective priming. Aversive priming increased pupillary and microsaccadic responses to information processing effort. The results indicate that pupillary response is more influenced by affective priming than microsaccadic rate. The results are discussed in the light of neuropsychological mechanisms of pupillary and microsaccadic behavior.
In the article “Microsaccadic rate signatures correlate under monocular and binocular stimulation conditions” Essig, Leube, Rifai, & Wahl (2020) investigate microsaccades with respect to their directional distribution and rate under monocular and binocular conditions. In both stimulation conditions participants fixated a Gabor patch presented randomly in orientation of 45° or 135° over a wide range of spatial frequencies. Microsaccades were mostly horizontally oriented regardless of the spatial frequency of the grating. This outcome was consistent between both stimulation conditions. This study found that the microsaccadic rate signature curve correlates between both stimulation conditions, therefore extending the use of microsaccades to clinical applications, since parameters as contrast sensitivity, have frequently been measured monocularly in the clinical studies.
The study “Microsaccades during high speed continuous visual search” by Martin, Davis, Riesenhuber, & Thorpe (2020) provides an analysis of the microsaccades occurring during visual search, targeting to small faces pasted either into cluttered background photos or into a simple gray background. Participants were instructed to target singular 3-degree upright or inverted faces in changing scenes. As soon as the participant’s gaze reached the target face, a new face was displayed in a different random location. Regardless of the experimental context (e.g. background scene, no background scene), or target eccentricity (from 4 to 20 degrees of visual angle), The authors found that the microsaccade rate dropped to near zero levels within 12 milliseconds. There were almost never any microsaccades after stimulus onset and before the first saccade to the face. In about 20% of the trials, there was a single microsaccade that occurred almost immediately after the preceding saccade’s offset. The authors argue that a single feedforward pass through the visual hierarchy of processing a stimulus is needed to effectuate prolonged continuous visual search and provide evidence that microsaccades can serve perceptual functions like correcting saccades or effectuating task-oriented goals during continuous visual search.
While many studies have characterized the eye movements during visual fixation, including microsaccades, in most cases only horizontal and vertical components have been recorded and analyzed. Little is known about the torsional component of microsaccades. In the study “Torsional component of microsaccades during fixation and quick phases during optokinetic stimulation” Sadeghpour & Otero-Millan (2020) recorded eye movements around the three axes of rotation during fixation and torsional optokinetic stimulus. The authors found that the average amplitude of the torsional component of microsaccades during fixation was 0.34 ± 0.07 degrees with velocities following a main sequence with a slope comparable to the horizontal and vertical components. The size of the torsional displacement during microsaccades was correlated with the horizontal but not the vertical component. In the presence of an optokinetic stimulus a nystagmus was induced producing more frequent and larger torsional quick phases compared to microsaccades produced during fixation of a stationary stimulus. The torsional component and the vertical vergence component of quick phases increased with higher velocities.
In previous research, microsaccades have been interpreted as psychophysiological indicators of task load. So far, it is still under debate how different types of task demands are influencing microsaccade rate. In their article “The interplay between task difficulty and microsaccade rate: Evidence for the critical role of visual load“ Schneider et al. (1921) examined the relation between visual load, mental load and microsaccade rate. The participants carried out a continuous performance task (n-back) in which visual task load (letters vs. abstract figures) and mental task load (1-back to 4-back) were manipulated as within-subjects variables. Eye tracking data, performance data as well as subjective workload were recorded. Data analysis revealed an increased level of microsaccade rate for stimuli of high visual demand (i.e. abstract figures), while mental demand (n-back-level) did not modulate microsaccade rate. The authors concluded that microsaccade rate reflects visual load of a task rather than its mental load. This conclusion is in accordance with the proposition of Krueger et al. (2019) “Microsaccades distinguish looking from seeing”, linking sensory with cognitive phenomena.
The present special thematic issue adds several new interesting facets to the research landscape around microsaccades. They still remain an attractive focus of interdisciplinary research and transdisciplinary applications. Thus, as already noted in the first part of this special thematic issue, research on microsaccades will not only endure, but keep evolving as the knowledge base expands.
References
Krejtz, K., Żurawska, J., Duchowski, A., & Wichary, S. (2020). Pupillary and microsaccadic responses to cognitive effort and emotional arousal during complex decision making. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 13(5). https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.5.2
Krueger, E., Schneider, A., Sawyer, B., Chavaillaz, A., Sonderegger, A., Groner, R., & Hancock, P. (2019). Microsaccades distinguish looking from seeing. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 12(6). https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.12.6.2
Martin, J. G., Davis, C. E., Riesenhuber, M., & Thorpe, S. J. (2020). Microsaccades during high speed continuous visual search. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 13(5). https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.5.4
Martinez-Conde, S., Engbert, R., & Groner, R. (2020). Microsaccades: Empirical Research and Methodological Advances: - Introduction to Part 1 of the Thematic Special Issue. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 12(6). https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.12.6.1
Sadeghpour, S., & Otero-Millan, J. (2020). Torsional component of microsaccades during fixation and quick phases during optokinetic stimulation. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 13(5). https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.5.5
Schneider, A., Sonderegger, A., Krueger, E., Meteier, Q., Luethold, P., & Chavaillaz, A. (2021). The interplay between task difficulty and microsaccade rate: Evidence for the critical role of visual load. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 13(5). https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.13.5.
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