Tokyo National Research Institute for Cultural Properties - Publications
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A Reconsideration of the Seated Nyoirin Kan’non Bosatsu (Cakravarticintamani avalokitesvara bodhisattava) at Kanshinji
Get PDFThe Nyoirin Kan’non sculpture at Kanshinji is renowned as a superb example of early Heian period Buddhist sculpture. This article discusses how the Kanshinji image, along with the Five Seated Kokuzô Bosatsu (Akasagarbha) images at Jingoji, the Seated Amida Nyorai (Amitatathagata) image in the lecture hall at Kôryûji and the Standing Eleven-Headed Kan’non Bosatsu (Ekadasamukha avalokitesvara bodhisattva) image at Hôkkeji can be considered works that display the style of the Jôwa era (834–848). A comparison of this group of works with the set of five styles of Seated Bosatsu (Bodhisattva) images in the lecture hall at Tôji, which deeply reflect the classical style of the Tempyô and later eras, indicates the fact that while there is almost no difference in their dates of production, they were clearly created in a different style. We might then ask why these stylistic differences. As preparation for a consideration of this question, this article considers the production period and background of the Kanshinji work. Nishikawa Shiji has previously provided a splendid explanation of this work. However, due to the dearth of documentary materials regarding this work, Nishikawa’s discussion includes a number of hypotheses. This article aims to take up Nishikawa’s discussion and hopes to advance it from the stance of Japanese history studies with their understanding of the handling of documentary materials.
In 9th century Japan, there were the following three types of temples that were operated and funded by the nation: (1) Daiji (temples founded and operated by the national government, the majority of these were established during the Nara period and were limited to the Kinai region); (2) Kokubunji and Kokubun’niji (provincial temples for monks and nuns, founded upon an edict by Emperor Shômu in the Nara period, with the aim of furthering Buddhist worship in their domains); and (3) Jogakuji (first established by individuals as “private temples,” these temples later came under the management and funding of the national government).
Kanshinji was established in Jôwa 3 (836) as a “private temple,” and was made a “Jogakuji” in Jôgan 11 (869), when the national government took over management and funding of the temple. However, during the period when it was still being run as a private temple, in Jôwa 10 (843), a bettô was established by the national government for the temple as its building manager. Normally a bettô was established to build a hall of a temple after a private temple had become a Jogakuji temple receiving the management and funding of the nation. However, in the case of Kanshinji, the national government established a bettô at the stage of its being a small “private temple.” This was an extremely unusual event. This meant that in Jôwa 10, the nation built and administered some building at this small “private temple.” What was that building? To the extent known from contemporary historical documents, there is only one possible answer to this question. This is the Gogandô commissioned by Kachiko Taikôtaigô (the empress of Emperor Saga). In other words, the building of the Gogandô at Kanshinji can be understood to have been fully begun in 843 when the bettô was established for the temple. The inventory of Kanshinji’s assets produced in Gangyô 7 (883) does not list a building named “Gogandô.” However, judging from the Buddhist implements preserved in each building of the temple and other materials, the kôdô (lecture hall) listed in this inventory can be considered to be this Gogandô.
Then we might ask, what was the main worship image for this Gogandô when it was first built. Judging from the inventory, there are three possible sculptures that fit this role. The Golden Butsugenbutsumo Nyorai (Buddhalocana tathagatha) image, Golden Miroku Nyorai (Maitreya tathagatha), and the Nyoirin Bosatsu image discussed here. The discussion below follows Nishikawa’s discussion of the work. In other words, the Golden Butsugenbutsumo Nyorai and the Golden Miroku Nyorai are both in the style of works that postdate the Jôwa era. Thus, the Nyoirin Bosatsu is the only work that stylistically would be suitable as the central worship image in the Gogandô when it was built in 843.
Hence we can understand that production of this work was either begun in 843 or substantially done by that date.
However, we can ask the question, why did Kachiko Taikôtaigô establish the Gogandô at Kanshinji. Kachiko was famous at the time as a major donor to the Buddhist Shingon sect. On the other hand, a Shingon priest named Shinshô founded Kanshinji. From the 11th month of 843 Shinshô was seconded to the Imperial Palace, and assigned the job of praying for the health of Emperor Ninmyô (the child born to Emperor Saga and Kachiko). This was just at the time that the bettô was established for Kanshinji. In other words, the opportunity for the establishment of the bettô for Kanshinji and the creation of the Gogandô can be seen as Shinshô’s secondment to the Imperial Palace and his prayers for the emperor’s health.
Previously it has been surmised that Kachiko established the Gogandô at Kanshinji in order to pray for the recovery of her husband retired Emperor Saga or in his memory. However, given that Emperor Saga died in Jôwa 9 (842), the theory regarding prayers for his recovery cannot be substantiated. Further, Retired Emperor Saga left a will that strictly warned against memorial offerings. Thus we cannot imagine that Kachiko would have defied his intentions by building the Gogandô as a memorial offering.
However, according to research on the familial structures of the 9th century, we understand that at the time the emperor’s mother had an extremely close relationship with her son. And, Emperor Ninmyô was sickly from childhood. Further, Kanshinji was the temple built by Shinshô who had prayed for the health of the emperor. Considering these factors together, at this point it would seem most appropriate to consider that Kachiko’s Gogandô was built to pray for the health of Emperor Ninmyô.journal articl
X-ray Fluorescence Analysis of the Colorants Used in by Ito Jakuchu
Get PDFSaichu-fu (H32.0cm×W1091.3cm)is known as the only painting scroll with color drawn by Ito Jakuchu (1716-1800)at the age of 77. Motifs of ninety-eight vegetables and fifty-six insects are drawn with pigments and dyes on silk. The National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo investigated the motifs and colorants of this painting scroll before its restoration from 2011 to 2012. Each section was photographed using high resolution digital color photography and colorants were identified by analysis using X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. The analytical results of the colorants used in Saichu-fu are presented briefly in this report by comparison with those used in Doshoku Sai-e, a masterpiece of Jakuchu collected in the Sannomaru Shozokan.
(1) White-colored materials
Only one pigment, shell white (Ca as a major component) is used. The same pigment is used for the white material in Doshoku Sai-e. The size of the motif of a cabbage butterfly with white color drawn in Saichu-fu and Doshoku Sai-e is almost the same.
(2) Red-colored materials
Only one pigment, cinnabar (Hg as a major component), and an organic dye are used. The red-colored materials containing Fe or Pb used in Doshoku Sai-e are not found.
(3) Yellow-colored materials
Only one pigment containing Fe as a major component and an organic dye are used. The yellow-colored material containing As which is used in Doshoku Sai-e is not found. The size of the motif of a swallowtail butterfly with yellow color drawn in Saichu-fu and Doshoku Sai-e is almost the same.
(4) Brown-colored materials
Only one pigment containing Fe as a major component is used.
(5) Green-colored materials
A pigment containing Cu and a small amount of As are used. An organic dye is also used.
(6) Blue-colored material
One pigment, azurite (Cu as a major component), and an organic dye are found. The blue-colored pigment containing Fe used in Doshoku Sai-e is not found.
(7) Black-colored materials
Black ink is used in many places.Gray color is expressed by using shell white with black ink. The size of the motif of a beetle in black and dark-brown drawn in Saichu-fu and Doshoku Sai-e is almost the same.
It is expected that the results presented in this paper will contribute to the research of Jakuchu paintings.journal articl
Conservation of the Wall Painting Fragments Excavated from the Fortified City of Khulbuk in the Collection of the National Museum of Antiquities of Tajikistan
Get PDFWall painting fragments excavated from the Khulbuk site located in southeastern Tajikistan have undergone conservation treatments. The painting is dated from the 11th to 12th century, the early Islamic period. Since only a limited number of wall paintings of this era have been found, this wall painting is very important from historical and art historical points of view.
The painting,which used to be on the wall of a mud brick structure,was on the ground when it was discovered during excavation. After it was lifted from the ground,its earthen plaster was removed. Thus the painting now has a very thin structure. The painting was also extremely fragile and heavily damaged. The paint layers no longer had adhesive strength and some paint had become powdery. The surface was cracked and there were many loose pieces in the relatively larger fragments. These conditions restricted the painting from being shown to the public and it was even difficult to move the painting safely.
In order to stabilize the painting fragments,conservation treatments described in this article were developed. First, pre-consolidation with funori-aqueous solution made it possible to carry out surface cleaning. Then,since small loose pieces needed to be joined and placed in right positions,they were fixed by light weight cellulose clay and joined with gypsum-based grout. After stabilization of the surface, the back of the fragments was also consolidated and a new backing of TWF (triaxil woven fabric)which can support the fragments well was given. Finally, an artificial render was applied on the back of the fragments to provide enough thickness to make the painting movable. All of these treatments were successfully done, and now the painting of Khulbuk is stable.journal articl
Current Conditions and Conservation Issues of the Wall Paintings of Ajanta Cave 2
Get PDFThe Ajanta Caves are Buddhist temples which were excavated in two phases:between 2nd century BC and 1st century AD,and between 5th and 6th century. Most of the caves are decorated with polychrome sculpture and magnificent wall paintings showing a highly developed artistic sensibility both in technique and rich intellectual expression.
The National Research Institute for Cultural Properties,Tokyo and the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) who is responsible for maintaining the Ajanta Caves have conducted a collaborative research project in search of appropriate conservation methodology
to preserve the wall paintings in Cave 2.
The Ajanta paintings are relatively well preserved but still suffer from several damaging causes such as measures taken in the past to protect the wall paintings or animal and insect activities. Varnish which had been applied in the past has turned yellow, disturbing the original painting appearance. In addition, excreta of bats which once inhabited the caves remain on the upper walls and ceilings, causing paint loss and visual disturbance. After assessment of the painting conditions,cleaning trials were carried out to remove the aged varnish and bats’excreta-related accretion. It appears that the varnish can be removed with 1 :1 mixture of acetone and ethanol in HPC gel. Water was effective in removing the bats’excreta-related accretion, especially in case of black substances.journal articl
New Discoveries at Tuyuq Grottoes in Turfan: A Discussion on Gaochang Buddhist Images in the 5th century
Get PDFFrom 2010 to 2011, a protective excavation to Tuyuq Grottoes has been conducted by Institute of Archaeology, CASS and other institutes. New findings include two chaityas dating to an earlier period, many important remains in front of the caves, as well as a great deal of precious manuscript fragments.
The two chaityas, respectively located at the east and the northwest of the Tuyuq valley, have a geographical importance, and are considered to be the largest and earliest caves in the region. A preliminary study reveals that they could be cut in the early 5th century.
Tuyuq’s early caves could be divided into several clusters each centering around a chaitya and attached with Buddhist quarter caves and meditation caves. A cluster probably equates a temple, following the arrangement taking the tower as its center.
The mural motifs in the two chaityas could not be seen in the early Tuyuq caves. Taking into consideration the early cave murals, the Gaochang Buddhist images in the 5th century cover following motifs: 1. Preaching Buddhas with a Buddha and two Buddhisattvas; 2. The assemblage of Seven Buddhas, Buddhas of Three Periods and Thousand Buddha; 3. Maitreya’s Ascension and Descent, Thousand Buddhas, and Four Heavenly Kings; 4. Buddhas of the Four Directions; 5. Jataka tales. These motifs are closely related with Buddha -dhyana-samadhisagara-sutra（観仏三昧海経）.
The new materials prove that the early caves at Tuyuq have close relations with Kucha Grottoes and early grottoes in Gansu province. The most important is that the Khotan’s influences could also be seen, which fully shows that Gaochang was a place where the Buddhist arts from the West Region and from the Central Plain crisscrossed.journal articl
Study on Urushi Paints Used in the Momoyama Cultural Period (III)
Get PDFDuring excavation in the center of Kyoto (O-ike site) from 2003 to 2004, many fourlobed jars were excavated. These jars were used to stock imported urushi paint from Thailand or Cambodia from the end of the 16th to the first half of the 17th century. At the same site many traditional urushi paint tools produced in Japan during the Momoyama cultural period were also excavated. Results of elemental analysis by Py-GC/MS showed that the urushi paint was composed of Melanorrhoea usitata, Rhus vernicifera, Rhus succedanla,or their mixture. But there is no idea as to what objects,other than nambanstyle exported lacquerware,imported urushi paint was used for. Analyses of five lacquerware excavated at O-ike site showed that the urushi paint was compound of a mixture of Rhus vernicifera and Rhus succedanla. This result is material evidence that imported urushi paint was used on urushi objects in Japan.journal articl
Study on the Reduction of Acetic Acid from Cabinets for Microfilms (II) -Estimation of Emission Sources of Acetic Acid Gases in a Preparation Room and Removal of Acetic Acid from Paper Photographic Enclosures-
Get PDFThe goal of the present study is to improve indoor air quality in a film storage and surrounding environment in the National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo. This report addresses the estimation of emission sources of acetic acid in the film storage and adjacent preparation room,and presents an experiment to remove acetic acid from paper photographic enclosures kept as archives.
To estimate emission sources of acetic acid, concentration and ventilation amount of acetic acid were measured in the film storage and the preparation room. It was found that air containing acetic acid flowed to the preparation room from the film storage and that a large volume of acetic acid had been emitted from cabinet 3 in the preparation room. There were aged films in the film storage and paper photographic enclosures which had absorbed acetic acid in this cabinet. Consequently, it was considered that acetic acid concentration of the preparation room was high.
Removing the paper photographic enclosures from the preparation room would be the best way to reduce acetic acid. However, they should be kept as archives since they contain much information about the films. Therefore, seasoning of the enclosures was
attempted. As a result, their acetic acid emission rate was decreased in the first 35 days of seasoning. Furthermore, A-D strips were used to check the removal of acetic acid from the enclosures. The color of the A-D strips was changed in accordance with acetic acid concentration of the samples. This result was consistent with the trend of emission rate decay shown by emission test. Thus A-D strips were beneficial in checking easily the removal of acetic acid from the paper photographic enclosures.journal articl
Report on Fumigation Process Conducted at Rin-noh-ji Temple
Get PDFA large scale fumigation process to control insect attack was conducted from July 17 to August 2, 2013 in the main hall of Rin-noh-ji temple in Nikko, Japan. It was revealed in the previous survey that the main structural members of the hall such as posts and beamshad been severely attacked by Priobium cylindricum. Fumigation was conducted for the main hall (11,450㎥)firstly and secondly for the disassembled wooden parts (2,672㎥). For fumigation, sulfuryl fluoride gas was used. Based on the results of laboratory tests, the concentration of the fumigation gas was kept at 50 to 70g/㎥ with temperature higher than 20℃ for 48 hours or more. To conduct the fumigation safely,special tools,equipment and plans were introduced, such as using an apparatus to supply fresh air to operators, procuring evacuation routes, and covering the hall and the stacked wooden members with special sheets.journal articl
Exhibition Reviews, Kano Sanraku and Sansetsu
Get PDFA retrospective examination of the great Momoyama painter Kanô Sanraku (1559–1635) and his heir and adopted son Kanô Sansetsu (1590–1651) was held from March 30–May 12, 2013 at the Kyoto National Museum. This exhibition was five years in the planning, and its rich content attracted a great deal of attention. The exhibition was divided into six sections: 1. Sanraku, The Founder of the Kyoto Kanô School; 2. From Sanraku to Sansetsu; 3. Masterpieces by Sansetsu from Overseas Collections and Related Works; 4. Experiments in Form, Sansetsu and Nature; 5. Experiments in Form, Sansetsu’s Paintings of Deities, Buddhas and Human Figures; and 6. In the Realm of Sansetsu. There were three times as many works by Sansetsu displayed as by Sanraku, and all four overseas loans to the exhibition were by Sansetsu, reflecting the fact that the exhibition focused mainly on Sansetsu. Nevertheless, the reason that the names of the two painters, father and son, were given equal weight, was emphasized in the exhibition outline in the catalogue by the exhibition planner, Yamashita Yoshiya (then curator, Kyoto National Museum), “In order to understand Sansetsu, one must understand his teacher Sanraku.” (p. 6 of the catalogue). This is because more so than comparing Sanraku and Sansetsu, one must emphasize their connection. A notable feature of the exhibition was the display of the survey notebooks (catalogue numbers 1–4 supplementary materials) by Doi Tsugiyoshi (1906–1991), an art historian who pioneered the study of Sanraku and Sansetsu, alongside the displayed works. These notebooks clearly recorded the comments and careful pencil sketches of the overall work made by Doi on each of the surveyed works, and they also contained photographs of historical materials. When Sansetsu was 60 years old he was embroiled in money troubles, Doi notes that while Sansetsu was innocent he was put into jail. The historical materials, including the record of his trial, clarified the process by which he was imprisoned, and the rediscovered originals of these materials were also displayed in the exhibition. The article by Okudaira Shunroku, “Sansetsu’s Ordeal, and the Idea for Waterfowls and Snowy Shore,” in the catalogue posits that the Waterfowls by Snowy Shore pair of six-panel screens were created to celebrate two festive occasions in the Kujô family, the 77th birthday (Japanese age system) of Sansetsu’s patron and a member of the Kyoto nobility, Kujô Kanetaka (1553–1636), and retirement of his heir Yukiie (1586–1665), and the subsequent assumption of the role of the head of the family by Yukiie’s son Michifusa. According to this theory, this pair of screens was painted in 1629, when Sansetsu was 40 years old (Japanese age system).journal articl
