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Teachers’ and students’ level of awareness regarding re-entry of mother-students in public secondary schools in Dodoma city
No full textResearch articleBackground: This study investigates the awareness levels among teachers and students
regarding the re-entry policy for mother students in public secondary schools in Dodoma City,
Tanzania. The re-entry policy, implemented in 2021, emphasises the readmission of teen mothers
to the regular school system.
Study Design: Employing a Concurrent Triangulation Design, the study gathered comprehensive
information by incorporating diverse research methods.
Population and Sampling: A sample of 489 students and 104 teachers from ordinal secondary
schools in Dodoma City was selected using random, systematic, and stratified techniques.
Instruments/Sources of Data: Data collection utilised questionnaires, interviews, and Focus
Group Discussions (FGD).
Validity and Reliability: Validity was ensured through a literature review, expert consultation, and
supervisor input. Reliability was confirmed via a test-retest method, yielding a Cronbach’s Alpha
of 0.705.
Statistical Treatment of Data: SPSS version 25 facilitated descriptive and inferential statistical
analyses, employing counts, percentages, and tables for data condensation. The Chi-square test
explored associations between variables.
Ethical Considerations: Following ethical guidelines, the study prioritized participant confidentiality
and informed consent.
Key Findings: The study identified that 55% of students and 69% of teachers possessed adequate
awareness of re-entry guidelines. Significant associations were noted between awareness levels
and socio-demographic attributes, including teachers’ and students’ sex, students’ class, and the
education level of students’ mothers.
Recommendation: The study recommends that the Tanzanian government reinforce and
implement existing re-entry guidelines. This is crucial to prevent the exclusion of girls from the
education arena and foster inclusivity and equal educational opportunities
Assessment of socio-economic implications of human-wildlife conflicts in communities adjacent to Nyerere National Park, Morogoro, Tanzania
No full textMSc DissertationHuman-wildlife conflicts (HWC) present a pervasive challenge
worldwide, particularly in regions adjacent to protected areas. The
IUCN (2023) emphasize the importance of effectively managing
HWC to achieve the United Nations for Biodiversity 2050. Despite
the introduction of various conservation initiatives to mitigate HWC,
the success rate remains low. Conservation management strategies
have traditionally focused on addressing dispute level of conflicts
focusing primarily on the visible impacts of HWC while neglecting
the underlying and identity-based conflicts that drives social conflicts
of HWC. Apart from neglecting the underlying and identity-based
conflicts, hidden costs associated with HWC remain understudied
and poorly documented leading to an exclusion from economic
evaluations and mitigation policies. Therefore, there is a critical need
for up-to-date studies focusing on addressing the social conflicts and
the socio-economic implications associated with HWC. Specifically,
the study aimed at (i) assessing the nature and extent of HWC (ii)
assessing the current intervention strategies employed across the
study area, (iii) identifying hidden costs associated with HWC, (iv)
quantifying households’ economic implications of hidden and visible
costs associated with HWC, and (v) evaluating the socio-
demographic predictors influencing respondents’ attitudes towards
wildlife conservation. Cross-sectional data were collected through
household interviews, key informant interviews, and focus group
discussions. Data analysis involved content analysis, descriptive
statistics and binary logistic regression analysis. Results revealed
that HWC resulted in both social and economic implications. in terms
of livelihood, majority of households (78%) were engaged in
agricultural farming. However, the nature of damage experienced by
respondents exhibited a significant difference (χ2=4.393, df= 1,
P<0.05). Predominantly, crop damage emerged as the most
prevalent form of conflict, mainly attributed to elephant intrusions.
Despite livestock depredation being comparably lower than crop
damages, respondents perceived it as highly significant and distressing. Poultry losses constituted the highest proportion, with
monkeys identified as the primary perpetrators. The study further
delineated HWC across three levels of conflict: dispute, underlying,
and identity-based conflicts. The prevalence of conflicts at the
dispute level was observed to be lower in comparison to underlying
and identity-based conflicts, underscoring the limited scope of
addressing conflicts solely at the dispute level within the context of
HWC. In addition, dispute and underlying levels of conflict r=0.414,
(p<0.05); and underlying and identity-based levels of conflict
r=0.535, (p<0.05) both indicated a positive significant correlation
indicating that an increase in dispute level of conflict leads to an
increase in underlying conflict. Dispute and identity-based levels of
conflict showed a not significant correlation r=0.328, (p=0.072).
Lethal and non-lethal intervention strategies were employed to
mitigate conflicts under dispute level. However, no lethal methods
were reported for mitigating livestock depredation. The intervention
strategies employed including the utilization of chili pepper, fencing,
farm guarding, scare tactics, solar torches, reporting to village
leaders, firecrackers, smoke, throwing stones at wild animals,
pesticides, and car oil/grease, were employed to alleviate crop
damages. Enclosures for livestock, supplementary feeding, solar
torches, and herding/guarding practices were employed to mitigate
livestock depredation, with varying degree of effectiveness among
respondents. Additionally, results revealed that respondents faced
several challenges in soliciting assistance from local authorities,
wildlife authorities and government authorities, including protracted
HWC incident reporting process, lack of consolation payment for
damages, exclusionary practices and lack of transparency. The
HWC incident reporting process was perceived as a protracted
chain, necessitating contacting the village leaders before relevant
authorities are notified, thereby intensifying HWC cases within the
study area. Exclusionary practices manifested in marginalizing
affected communities from participating in decision-making
processes concerning conservation and HWC-related issues. Lack
of transparency further compounded the issue with majority of respondents being unaware of NGOs operating within their
communities in addressing HWC. Furthermore, the study revealed
that HWC includes diverse dimensions of hidden costs, including
opportunity costs, transaction costs psychological and health
impacts. These hidden costs present significant implications,
particularly for households reliant on agricultural farming and
livestock keeping within the study area. Additionally, both visible and
hidden costs associated with HWC pose economic implications
stemming from crop damage, livestock depredation, monetary
opportunity costs, and transactional expenses, with a total estimated
annual economic loss of USD 1 455.53 per household. Nonetheless,
no consolation payments were made to mitigate the economic
losses incurred by respondents. The following variables were
statistically significant in explaining the respondents’ attitudes
towards wildlife and conservation, namely: household head age,
level of education, household size and HWC experience (X2=24,
df=7, p<0.05). Finally, the study therefore concluded that solely
focusing on addressing HWC at the dispute level leads to a partial
understanding of the overall situation and overlooks social conflicts,
potentially resulting in recurring conflicts over time. Furthermore,
respondents within the study area are faced with a range of hidden
costs associated with HWC that not only include direct financial
expenses but also non-monetary impacts such as psychological and
health impacts. Therefore, the study advocates for the adoption and
implementation of a holistic approach aligned with the Conservation
Conflict Transformation Model (CCT) model to effectively address
HWC, acknowledging their complexity and fostering cooperation
among stakeholders to safeguard wildlife and enhance local
livelihoods.KfW UNAM (UNAM, BMZ Ref.2015.67.015
Challenges and opportunities of coffee cooperatives in enhancing member incomes: a case study of Missenyi district, Kagera region, Tanzania
No full textJournal articleAgricultural Marketing Cooperative Societies (AMCOS) are critical in supporting farmers through resource
pooling, crop marketing, and access to services like training and credit. However, their effectiveness is undermined by
structural and systemic challenges that hinder their ability to meet members' needs. This study investigates the role of
AMCOS in service provision, focusing on coffee cooperatives in Missenyi District, Tanzania. Data were collected from 128
participants using surveys, interviews, and focus group discussions, and analyzed quantitatively with IBM-SPSS (Version 20)
and thematically for qualitative insights. The findings highlight significant challenges. Demographic imbalances reveal that
72.5% of respondents were aged over 50, with only 6.9% under 40, pointing to a declining youth engagement in farming.
Gender disparities persist, with men comprising 82.4% of cooperative members despite women providing 70% of labor.
Limited educational attainment (60.8% with only primary education) constrains members’ capacity for innovation. While
land ownership was high (90%), small plot sizes (1–3 hectares for 64.7% of respondents) restrict production scalability.
Access to improved coffee seedlings (35%) and training services (36.3%) was inadequate, while 96% of members lacked
access to credit, limiting financial flexibility. Although government initiatives, such as tax reductions and digital payment
systems, improved coffee prices, financial constraints, mismanagement, and competition continued to impede service delivery.
Addressing these issues requires targeted interventions, including public-private partnerships, improved resource
management, regulatory enforcement, and capacity building to ensure AMCOS can meet members’ expectations and promote
sustainable coffee farming in Missenyi District
Prevalence, knowledge and practices on prevention and management of overweight and obesity among adults in Dodoma City, Tanzania
No full textResearch articleOverweight/obesity is increasing leading to high rates of non-communicable diseases. The
study aimed to assess the prevalence, knowledge and practices on prevention and management of overweight/obesity among adults in Dodoma region.
Methodology
A cross- sectional research was conducted among 313 randomly selected adults aged 25–
65 years. Face to face interviews were conducted to obtain demographic information, knowledge on preventing and managing overweight/obesity using a pre-tested questionnaire.
Weight and height were measured following standard procedures and nutrition status was
categorized using WHO criteria. Dietary intake was assessed using qualitative 24 hours
recall to obtain dietary diversity score. Data was analyzed using the SPSS™ Version 20 to
obtain descriptive and inferential statistics.
Results
About 62.6% (n = 196) of the participants were females. The overall prevalence of overweight/obesity was 59.7% (n = 186) of which 28% (n = 88) were overweight and 31.3% (n =
98) obese. Obesity was three times higher among females (41.8% vs 13.7%) than males.
Overweight/obesity was positively associated with female sex (Adjusted OR 2.34; 95%CI:
1.235–4.68; p = 0.001), low knowledge (Adjusted OR 2.15; 95%CI: 1.22–3.81; p = 0.008)
and negatively associated with dietary diversity score (Adjusted OR 0. 452; 95%CI: 0.199–
1.87; p = 0.03). About 76% of respondents reported that overweight/obesity is a result of
consuming high energy (38.8%; n = 92) and high fat foods (27%; n = 63). More than half of
the respondents reported to be insensitive with kind of foods they consume and for those
who were sensitive, 64% do so to avoid diseases. Furthermore, 60% control their weight by
doing physical exercises while 18% by both physical exercises and diet management. However, about 43% did not know foods exposing individuals to health problems.
Conclusion and recommendations
High prevalence of overweight/obesity was observed and significantly associated with
female sex, low dietary diversity and knowledge on overweight/obesity prevention. This creates a need to improve knowledge on prevention of overweight/obesity.SUARIS-One project from Sokoine University of
Agriculture in Morogoro, Tanzania (DPRTC/R/126/
COA/5/202)
Characterization of selected Rice (Oryza sativa L.) genotypes tolerance to anaerobic stress during germination
No full textMaster of Science in Crop
ScienceRice is a major food and cash crop in Tanzania, cultivated on
approximately 1.5 million hectares, making it the second largest crop
after maize. The cultivation of rice in Tanzania is primarily carried
out in three major ecosystems: rainfed lowland (71%), rainfed
upland (20%), and irrigated (9%). The majority of rice production
comes from smallholder farmers practicing rainfed agriculture,
accounting for around 90% of the country's total output. Direct
seeding is a widely used, cost-effective, and labor-efficient method
for crop establishment among these farmers. However, Tanzania is
facing the adverse effects of climate change, resulting in a decline inachieve the overall objective, two specific objectives were
formulated: first, to identify potential rice donors for anaerobic stress
tolerance during germination using genomic estimated breeding
values, and second, to explore the degree of coleoptile variability of
directly seeded rice cultivars when subjected to flooding.
To achieve the first objective, we screened 208 rice genotypes,
including four known tolerant and four susceptible checks, for
anaerobic germination in a screenhouse at Sokoine University of
Agriculture (SUA). The screening involved direct seeding of the
seeds and applying 7 cm of standing water above the soil level for
twenty-one days. In the non-flooded (control) treatment, the soil was
appropriately moistened for optimal germination and subsequently
maintained with 2 cm of standing water. Six traits were measured,
including germination and seedling height at 14 and 21 days after
seeding, as well as culm diameter, root length, shoot dry matter, and
root dry matter at 21 days. A multitrait selection index based on the
genomic estimated breeding values (GEBVs) obtained from each
trait was able to identify ten potential genotypes that exhibited
tolerance to anaerobic stress during germination. These genotypes
include Afaa Mwanza 1/159, Rojomena 271/10, Kubwa jinga,
Wahiwahi, Magongo ya Wayungu, Mpaka wa bibi, Mwangaza,
Tarabinzona, IB126 (Bug 2013A), and Kanamalia.
In the second objective, variations in coleoptile elongations of 44 rice
genotypes were explored and characterized for flooding adaptability.
The 44 genotypes were only a subset of the 208 genotypes initially
screened for the first objective. To identify the subset, genotypes
were chosen based on their anaerobic germination performance.
Specifically, 33 genotypes exhibited an average percentage
germination of at least 70%, indicating their relatively high tolerance
to anaerobic conditions. The remaining 11 genotypes demonstrated
low anaerobic germination percentages, with values below 20%.
This subset of genotypes was then subjected to coleoptile
elongation measurement. The purpose of this analysis was to
agricultural productivity.
Flooding is one of the major weather events highlighted by farmers
affecting rice production. Future projections indicate an increase in
the frequency and intensity of floods in Tanzania, linked to the
heightened risk of erratic rainfall patterns. Riverine flooding
particularly poses a devastating stress for agriculture in lowland
areas. Consequently, farmers using direct seeding face challenges
such as hypoxia and anoxia, which lead to poor germination and
significant crop losses. While rice exhibits some degree of flood
tolerance compared to other cereal crops, this attribute is dependent
on the variety. Moreover, coleoptile elongation is reported as a major
determinant that can be observed and used for the selection of
donor parents, which has never been characterized for effective
germplasm utilization. Therefore, there is a need to identify rice
genotypes that can germinate under flood stress conditions provided
that Tanzania has vast rice cultivars, particularly landraces, of
untapped potential for this stress.
To address this research gap, we formulated the overall objective
aiming to contribute to the availability of donor parents by screening
and identifying rice genotypes that exhibit tolerance to anaerobic
stress during germination for direct-seeded rice cultivation. Then, toachieve the overall objective, two specific objectives were
formulated: first, to identify potential rice donors for anaerobic stress
tolerance during germination using genomic estimated breeding
values, and second, to explore the degree of coleoptile variability of
directly seeded rice cultivars when subjected to flooding.
To achieve the first objective, we screened 208 rice genotypes,
including four known tolerant and four susceptible checks, for
anaerobic germination in a screenhouse at Sokoine University of
Agriculture (SUA). The screening involved direct seeding of the
seeds and applying 7 cm of standing water above the soil level for
twenty-one days. In the non-flooded (control) treatment, the soil was
appropriately moistened for optimal germination and subsequently
maintained with 2 cm of standing water. Six traits were measured,
including germination and seedling height at 14 and 21 days after
seeding, as well as culm diameter, root length, shoot dry matter, and
root dry matter at 21 days. A multitrait selection index based on the
genomic estimated breeding values (GEBVs) obtained from each
trait was able to identify ten potential genotypes that exhibited
tolerance to anaerobic stress during germination. These genotypes
include Afaa Mwanza 1/159, Rojomena 271/10, Kubwa jinga,
Wahiwahi, Magongo ya Wayungu, Mpaka wa bibi, Mwangaza,
Tarabinzona, IB126 (Bug 2013A), and Kanamalia.
In the second objective, variations in coleoptile elongations of 44 rice
genotypes were explored and characterized for flooding adaptability.
The 44 genotypes were only a subset of the 208 genotypes initially
screened for the first objective. To identify the subset, genotypes
were chosen based on their anaerobic germination performance.
Specifically, 33 genotypes exhibited an average percentage
germination of at least 70%, indicating their relatively high tolerance
to anaerobic conditions. The remaining 11 genotypes demonstrated
low anaerobic germination percentages, with values below 20%.
This subset of genotypes was then subjected to coleoptile
elongation measurement. The purpose of this analysis was to assess the variation in coleoptile elongation among the selected
genotypes and determine its association with tolerance to anaerobic
stress during germination. Significant variations in coleoptile
elongation were observed among the 44 selected and studied
genotypes (P<0.05). The genotypes were classified based on the
magnitude of coleoptile elongation, ranging from high to very low
elongating rice. Association analysis revealed a significant positive
and moderately strong correlation between coleoptile elongation and
anaerobic germination. Among the genotypes, NERICA 7,
Kanamalia, Wahiwahi, Rojomena 271/10, Kubwa jinga, Faya
mafuta, and Mwasungo exhibited the highest elongation. In general,
most of the genotypes that exhibited high average percentage
anaerobic germination had an intermediate to high degree of
coleoptile elongation, consistently demonstrating a significant
connection between coleoptile elongation and tolerance to anaerobic
stress during germination.
Overall, these results obtained four top test genotypes: Kanamalia,
Kubwa Jinga, Wahiwahi, and Rojomena 271/10. These genotypes
were consistently selected for a greater selection index for anaerobic
germination and significant coleoptile elongation. The results provide
valuable insights into the significant variations among rice cultivars
regarding their ability to germinate and adapt under flooded
conditions. Further analysis, including starch breakdown and
identification of genes associated with tolerance and coleoptile
elongations, is imperative to confirm and broaden the scope of
tolerance in these genotypes
Modeling the electrical conductivity relationship between saturated paste extract and 1:2.5 dilution in different soil textural classes
No full textdoi: 10.3389/fsoil.2024.1-10Regression models were developed to estimate the electrical conductivity of
saturated paste extract (ECe) from the electrical conductivity of soil-water ratio
(EC1:2.5) for different soil textural classes. ECe is a crucial parameter used to
indicate the presence, type, and distribution of salinity in soils. However,
determining ECe is demanding, time-consuming, requires considerable skill to
accurately identify the correct soil saturation point, and is not routinely
performed by soil testing laboratories. Many laboratories, instead, commonly
measure the electrical conductivity of soil-water extracts at various dilutions,
such as EC1:1, EC1:2.5, or EC1:5. In this study, 706 soil samples were collected from
depths of 0 - 30 cm across three rice irrigation schemes to determine EC1:2.5,
with 50% analyzed for ECe. ECe values were grouped based on soil textural
classes. The results showed a strong linear relationship between EC1:2.5 and ECe
values, with a high coefficient of determination (R² > 0.95). The Root Mean
Square Error values were low (1.4 < RMSE), and the Mean Absolute Error values
were similarly low (0.85 < MAE). Therefore, the regression models developed
provide a practical means of estimating ECe for various soil textural classes,
thereby enhancing soil salinity assessment and management strategiesDANID
Econometric analysis of consumers’ preference heterogeneity for yoghurt and ice cream products in Tanzania: A latent class model and mixed logit mode
No full textJournal articleIn Tanzania, a growing upper and middle classes, particularly among urbanites, exhibit distinct
preferences for higher-quality processed foods, including dairy products. This study examines
variations in consumer preferences and their willingness to pay for yogurt and ice cream, which
serve as stand-ins for processed milk products. The analysis is based on a discrete choice
experiment involving 400 participants in Dar es Salaam. A random parameter logit model was
utilized to account for preference heterogeneity, while latent class models (LCMs) were applied to
uncover the underlying factors driving these differences in preferences. Our findings reveal three
distinct consumer classes: processed milk sceptics (who prefer unprocessed dairy products),
processed milk advocates (who prefer processed products), and neutral consumers (indifferent
between processed and unprocessed milk). Preferences are influenced by product attributes, so
cioeconomic characteristics, and attitudes towards processed foods. The results indicate that
Tanzanian consumers place the greatest value on sensory attributes, packaging, and the product’s
origin (local versus imported). This research offers fresh perspectives on the intricate preferences
of dairy consumers in Tanzania, a topic that has been relatively underexplored. The findings
suggest that producers and marketers must adapt to the dynamic market by balancing intrinsic
and extrinsic factors against price. Understanding consumers’ socioeconomic and product attri
butes is essential for increasing market share and effectively segmenting markets. These findings
would be useful incorporated into strategic planning to enhance the competitiveness and sus
tainability of Tanzania’s dairy industry
Potential of moringa oleifera leaf extract in ground beef preservation
No full textMSc. DissertationThis study explored the diverse potential of Moringa oleifera leaf
extract as a natural preservative in ground beef, with a specific
focus on its impact on microbiological and physico-chemical
properties during refrigerated storage. The study explored varying
concentrations of Moringa oleifera (0.5%, 1%, 1.5% and 2.0%) in
comparison to a preservative-free control group, investigating their
impact on microbial parameters, including Total Bacteria Counts
(TBC), Total Coliform Count (TCC), Staphylococcus, Salmonella,
and E. coli. The results unveiled a dose-dependent relationship,
where in all concentrations exhibited lower TBC compared to the
control group, with the 2.0% concentration demonstrating the most
substantial reduction, underscoring Moringa oleifera's potential to
inhibit bacterial growth in ground beef.
In terms of TCC, higher concentrations of Moringa oleifera showed
enhanced effectiveness in reducing coliform bacteria, particularly
the 1.5% and 2.0% concentrations, which significantly decreased
counts by 31% and 32% compared to the control group. The study
also spotlighted Moringa oleifera's dose-dependent antibacterial
activity against Staphylococcus and E. coli, with escalating doses
correlating with significant reductions in these microorganisms.
These findings collectively suggest that Moringa oleifera holds
promise in augmenting food safety by curbing the proliferation of
harmful bacteria, thereby acting as an effective natural preservative
and enhancing the microbiological quality of refrigerated ground
beef. The investigation extended to the antimicrobial effects of Moringa
oleifera
aqueous
extract
on
ground
beef,
assessing
physico-chemical, microbial, and organoleptic qualities during
refrigerated storage at 4°C. The results revealed that the 1.5%
crude extract significantly improved (p<0.05) various sensory
attributes, including pH, juiciness, texture, flavor, taste, and overall
acceptability, surpassing both the control and other treated
samples. Furthermore, microbial load, as indicated by the Aerobic
Plate Count (APC), exhibited a significant decrease in treated
samples (p<0.05), with the 2% treatment proving to be the most
effective.
The color parameters (L*, a*, b*) of ground beef were influenced by
Moringa oleifera extract, manifesting a decrease in values,
particularly with the 2% concentration. Notably, the pH of ground
beef experienced a slight increase during storage, but Moringa
extract did not significantly (p>0.05) impact this parameter. In
conclusion, this study underscores the potential of natural additives
such as Moringa oleifera to not only extend the shelf life of ground
beef but also to significantly enhance its microbiological and
sensory properties. This aligns with the escalating consumer
preference for safe and natural food products, emphasizing the
need for further exploration and application of Moringa oleifera in
the realm of food preservation and safety
Klerksdorp Tornado on March 4, 2007, in South Africa: a synoptic overview
No full textJournal ArticleThis research delves into the factors contributing to tornado formation in South Africa, with
a specific focus on the Klerksdorp tornado that occurred on March 4, 2007, in Northwest
Province. Despite their recurrent occurrence and significant potential for damage, tornadoes
have received relatively little attention. Between 1990 and 2014, these weather phenomena
incurred estimated costs exceeding half a billion American dollars in addition to other
weather-related disasters. In this study, data from multiple observation systems, including
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the National Centers for
Environmental Prediction (NCEP), the European Organization for the Exploitation of
Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) in Germany, and the South African Weather
Service (SAWS), were thoroughly analyzed. The findings reveal that the Klerksdorp tor-
nado was linked to a cold front and a cut-off low, which were the dominant weather
systems on the day of the tornado. This case study enhances our comprehension of tornado
dynamics in South Africa, aiding in improving short-term forecasts and potentially early
warning systems. Future research should concentrate on the recurring nature of tornadoes
in association with tropical weather systems and locally-driven factors
The impacts of anthropogenic activities on the physicochemical water quality of Pinyinyi River, Arusha-Tanzania
No full textJournal of Water Resource and Protection, 2023, 15, 393-412Rivers are important for aquatic biodiversity. Anthropogenic activities de-
grade rivers and decrease their capacity to offer ecosystem services. This study
used macroinvertebrates to assess the impact of anthropogenic activities on
the Pinyinyi River during dry and wet season. Abundance of macroinverte-
brates, average score per taxon and Shannon Weiner Species Diversity Index
were used to state the ecological status of Pinyinyi River. Because the abun-
dance of macroinvertebrates can be affected by change in water quality, some
of the physicochemical parameters were also measured. A macroinvertebrates
hand net is used to collect the macroinvertebrates per sampling point. DO,
temperature, pH, turbidity and TDS were measured
in-situ using HI-9829
Multiparameter and BOD was measured in the laboratory using Oxydirect le-
vibond method. A total of 164 macroinvertebrates were collected and identi-
fied from Pinyinyi River during dry and wet season. They belong to 13 fami-
lies. The most abundant taxa were mosquito larva, Diptera (41.07%) and aq-
uatic caterpillar, Lepidoptera (23.21%) during dry season representing about
64.28% of the total macroinvertebrates whereas the least abundant taxa were
pouch snail (16.07%) and dragonflies, Odonata (19.64%) during dry season
representing about 35.72% of the total macroinvertebrates. The most abun-
dant taxa collected during wet season were aquatic earthworm, haplotaxida
(19.44%), midges, Diptera (17.59%), black flies, Diptera (15.74%) and creep-
ing water bugs, hemiptera (12.96%) whereas the least abundant were pigmy
back swimmers, hemiptera (2.78%), snail (3.7%), predacious dividing beetle
(4.63%) and coleopteran (4.63%). Average Score per taxon of Pinyinyi River
during dry season was 5.25 and 3.6 during wet season. The Shannon Weiner
Species Diversity Index was 1.318 during dry season and 2.138 during wet season. Based on the score, Pinyinyi River is moderately polluted during dry
season and seriously polluted during wet season. Based on index, Pinyinyi
River has low diversity of macroinvertebrates during dry season and highly in
diversity of macroinvertebrates during wet season. Moreover, it was found
that, agricultural activities, livestock keeping, bathing and washing alter phy-
sicochemical parameters of Pinyinyi River and hence change the abundance
of macroinvertebrates as well as the quality of water. The study, therefore,
recommends that the source of pollutants should be controlled and the river
regularly monitored by the relevant authorities