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Occurrence of aflatoxins in animal feeds and raw milk: the case of Kondoa District in Dodoma Tanzania
No full textDissertationAflatoxins in animal feeds and milk are common problem mostly
reported among many regions in Tanzania, in Africa, and worldwide.
Studies have revealed a high occurrence of aflatoxins in feeds and
milk, which is largely due to a lack of knowledge among various
stakeholders along the milk value chain, particularly smallholder dairy
farmers (SHDF), animal feed processors, and feed suppliers. This
has led to aflatoxins contamination of animal feeds during processing,
storage, and feeding. The most common and highly carcinogenic
aflatoxins is aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), which, when consumed, is
metabolized into aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and can be found in milk, meat,
and eggs. Other types of aflatoxins include aflatoxin B2, G1, G2, and
M2. The formation of aflatoxins is mostly caused by Aspergillus flavus
or Aspergillus parasticus, which, under adverse environmental
temperatures and humidity, can grow in livestock feeds such as
maize bran, sunflower seedcakes, silage, hay, and, rarely, in the
grass, leading to the production of toxins that referred to as aflatoxins.
This study was conducted to assess the level of awareness of
aflatoxins in animal feeds and fresh milk among smallholder dairy
farmers and to determine the contamination of AFB1 in animal feeds
and the occurrence of AFM1 in milk. The study involved both
qualitative and quantitative methodologies, including surveys and
laboratory determinations of aflatoxins in animal feeds and milk.
Semi-structured questionnaires were used, involving 120 SHDFs who
had at least one dairy cow from six wards in Kondoa district namely
Soera, Kikiro, Haubi, Kolo, Borisa, and Kondoa mjini. In the
laboratory, 20 feed samples and 25 milk samples were collected from
25 SHDFs selected among 120 SHDFs and analysed for aflatoxin B1
and M1 respectively using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
(HPLC), with samples prepared following various steps before
injection into the HPLC for aflatoxins detection and quantification. The
results of this study provide a basis for the recommendation of more
training programs and awareness campaigns on aflatoxins
supplemented with close monitoring of the dairy value chain by
extension officers across regions in Tanzania. The results of this
study demonstrate that, majority of SHDFs have awareness of aflatoxins. About 88.3% of the surveyed SHDFs have heard of
aflatoxins through village meetings coordinated in collaboration with
extension staff, where aflatoxins awareness was one of the agenda.
Other sources of information included seminars, newspapers, radio,
and television. Additionally, 77.5% were aware of the possible factors
and control measures for aflatoxins in animal feeds and milk, and
68.2% understand that aflatoxins can harm both animal health and
human health resulting in liver cancer. Furthermore, 63.3% knew the
possible transmission of aflatoxins from animal feeds to milk.
Additionally, more than 55% of the surveyed farmers were aware of at
least one factor for aflatoxins contamination and control measures to
prevent aflatoxins.
The results by High Performance Liquid Chromatograph (HPLC)
analysis of animal feeds and milk revealed that 55% of all samples
tested positive for AFB1 in animal feeds, where only 5% were above
the permissible safe limit of 20 μg/kg for dairy cattle feeding. The
mean AFB1 was found to be 8.6 (±5.9) μg/kg, ranging from the lowest
limit of detection (LOD) to 21.1 μg/kg. The analysis of milk samples
revealed that 44% of the samples tested were positive for AFM1, with
12% of the sample above the level recommended by the Tanzania
Bureau of Standards (TBS), the European Union (EU) and the World
Health Organization (WHO). The mean AFM1 was found to be 0.07
(±0.08) μg/L, ranging from the limit of detection to 0.23 μg/L.
However, there was no milk sample that exceeded the US Food and
Drug Administration (USFDA) and Codex standards of 0.5 μg/L for
milk to be consumed by the public.
Findings from this study demonstrate that the majority of farmers had
information about aflatoxins in animal feeds and raw milk, despite
many awareness programs conducted for agricultural crop producers.
Some farmers were aware of factors and the control measures for
aflatoxins, also they were able to mention at least one sign of
possible aflatoxins-contaminated feeds. This helped in their routine
practices of feed preparation, storage, and feeding cattle. The
findings of the survey reflect the real situation in the field, as the
majority of feeds and milk samples were within the levels recommended by TBS, EU, WHO, USFDA, and Codex Alimentarius
standards for dairy cattle feeding and milk for public consumption.
In conclusion, it was found, smallholder dairy farmers were aware of
aflatoxins animal feeds and milk. However, there are some fees and
milk samples contain aflatoxin calling for more training programs to
be established and implemented to spread awareness on aflatoxins
causes and effects, and hence ensure that the community is aware of
the problem and contribute to the effort to prevent aflatoxins.
Monitoring of SHDFs practices along the dairy value chain is also
recommended to encourage voluntary participation to prevent
aflatoxins contamination in animal feeds and milk and throughout the
food system in genera
On-farm performance of selected improved forage varieties under smallholder farming conditions in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania
No full textDissertationScarcity of high-quality forages especial in dry season, hinders the
development of the dairy industry in Tanzania. Adopting improved forage
varieties is viewed as a breakthrough for smallholders in dairy-producing
areas such as the Southern Highlands of Tanzania. The study was
conducted to assess selected soil properties of pasture plots, and the
performance of improved forage varieties in smallholder farming settings
in Southern Highlands of Tanzania. The Highlands are located between
6° and 12° S latitudes and longitude 29° to 38°E, receive 823-2850 mm
of rainfall annually from November to April, and have a mean annual
temperature of 13°C-19°C. Two wards per district: Igowole and Mtwango
(Mufindi), Ikuna and Kichiwa (Njombe) and Kiwira and Lufingo (Rungwe)
were selected for the study. From 101 randomly interviewed
respondents, 38 households with >0.1 acres pasture plots were
purposively picked for soil performance study, meanwhile 30 among 38
households, with set of Brachiaria hybrid cvs. Cayman and Cobra and P.
purpureum cvs. ILRI 16835 and Ouma, were purposively picked for
forage performance study. Soil auger was used to draw soil samples at
0-20 cm and 21-50 cm depths. Composite soil samples per depths per
plot were sent to Lab, air-dried for a week and sieved to pass through 2
mm sieve. In Lab soil sample were analysed for, Texture by hydrometer
method, soil pH by pH meter in 1:2.5 soil-water suspension and 1N KCl,
Total Nitrogen (TN) by Kjeldahl method, Available P by Bray method
since the soil was acidic, Exchangeable Calcium [Ca2+] and Magnesium
[Mg+] by atomic absorption spectrophotometer and Exchangeable
Sodium [Na+] and Potassium [K+] by flame photometer. Prior evaluation
of forage performance, swards of Brachiaria hybrid and P. purpureum
cultivars were standardised at 5 cm and 7 cm stubble cut, respectively.
Data for forage growth, biomass yield and nutritional values, were
collected from 4 m2 sampling unit per cultivar per plot, at the end of each
of the two phases of 6-weeks. Six plants were randomly selected in each
sampling unit and a tape measure was used to measure the height from
ground level to plant tip (inflorescence excluded), length and width of the
constantly third-from-top leaf were measured. Live and sprouting tillers
from each plant's shoot were counted for tiller numbers. Sampling unit harvest used to estimate biomass yield per-hectare. 300 g fresh forage
sample from each plot was weighed, air-dried at 65 oC for 48 hours and
ground to pass a 1 mm sieve. Association of Official Analytical Chemists
standard procedures were used to analyse oven-dry matter (DM) (ID
930.15), Ash (ID 942.05), Crude protein (CP) by Kjeldahl method (ID
954.01), neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF)
were analysed using Van Soest procedures. Soil pH, TN, available P-,
exchangeable cations (K+, Ca2+, Mg+ and Na+), and particle sizes (clay,
silt, and sand) were analysed using ANOVA type III mixed effect model:
Y = Soil depth (Fixed) + District (Fixed) + Soil depth*District (Fixed) +
Ward (Random) + Residual error. Tukey's method compared mean soil
parameters across soil depths and districts and P<0.05 was deemed
significant. Kruskal-Wallis H test was used to analyse and compare
median plant height, leaf length and width, tiller numbers, and forage
biomass yield. DM, Ash, CP, NDF and ADF were analysed using an
ANOVA mixed effect model: Y = Cultivar (Fixed) + Growth phase
(Random) + Ward (Random) + Residual error. Tukey's method was used
to compare cultivars' mean nutritional characteristics at p 0.05. Selected
soil properties varied significantly (p<0.05) by depth and district. All
districts had acidic soil pH (<5.5) in two soil depths except Rungwe,
which was medium. TN was generally medium (0.2-0.3%) in all districts.
Available P was medium in Mufindi (8.7 mg/kg), but was low in Njombe
(2.9 mg/kg), and Rungwe (0.03 mg/kg). Exchangeable K + was in
borderline (0.2 Cmol+/kg) between medium and low values in Mufindi
and Njombe, but medium in Rungwe (0.6 Cmol+/kg). Plant height, leaf
length and number of tillers among cultivars varied significantly (p<0.05).
Cayman (28.8 cm) and Cobra (26.6 cm) had shorter plant height than
ILRI 16835 (50.7 cm) and Ouma (56.4 cm). Cobra and Cayman (21 cm
both) had shorter leaf length than ILRI 16835 (46.7 cm) and Ouma (47.6
cm). Cayman (64) and Cobra (67) had the highest numbers of tiller than
ILRI 16835 (22) and Ouma (21). Cayman had the widest leaf width (2.1
cm) while Ouma had the lowest (1.7 cm). Above-ground forage biomass
DM and ash contents were not statistically different (p>0.05) among
cultivars. NDF and ADF varied between cultivars (p<0.05). Cayman had
the lowest NDF and ADF values (539 g kg-1 DM) and (256 g kg-1 DM) compared to other cultivars (545-571 g kg -1 DM), and (264-292 g kg-1
DM) respectively. Crude Protein values did not vary statistically (p>0.05).
Study concluded that, soil conditions were not sufficient to support
production of improved forage varieties despite fertilizer uses. CP values
was similar across cultivars and Cayman was the best cultivar in the
southern highlands for its lower NDF. Evaluated cultivars alone cannot
meet lactating cows’ nutritional needs, so they must be supplemented
Effectiveness of community based health education intervention on the control of human taenia solium taeniasis / cysticercosis in Kongwa and Songwe Districts, Tanzania
No full textThesisTaenia solium taeniasis/cysticercosis are neglected tropical diseases
and infections transmitted between humans and pigs, causing
economic and public health impact in affected communities. The
diseases and infections have received great attention in recent years
and now are included in the global agenda of neglected tropical
diseases. However, little efforts are in place for the control in sub-
Saharan Africa (SSH), a highly endemic region. Tanzania is among
the SSH countries where the diseases and infections are endemic
especially in districts that keep high number of pigs. Control
measures recommended to combat these diseases and infections
include improvements in hygiene, sanitation and pig management,
mass taeniacidal chemotherapy and health education. Health
education is the cornerstone of health promotion and has been
defined as the lifelong process by which individuals acquire
knowledge, attitudes and behaviour that promote health and foster
wise decisions for solving personal, family and community health
problems. However, there are limited studies to evaluate community-
based health education interventions in endemic areas of the country.
The current study on community health education on T. solium
taeniasis / cysticercosis was conducted between July 2019 and
December 2021 in Kongwa and Songwe Districts, Tanzania. The
general aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of a
developed community based health education intervention to
increase community knowledge, improve preventive measures and
reduce incidences of human T. solium taeniasis/cysticercosis in the
study area. To achieve this, all villages from Kongwa and Songwe
Districts were assessed for their eligibility to participate in the study
targeting on selecting 42 villages and estimated sample size of 872
people. Randomized controlled trial design was used, where villages
were randomly assigned into two groups, 21villages as control group
and other 21 villages as intervention group. The study was conducted
in three key phases, including the baseline phase whereby the
baseline data were assessed, health education intervention phase
whereby the education intervention was performed and the post
intervention phase whereby the education intervention was assessed for its effectiveness. The study recruited the same participants in all
the three phases.
At baseline phase which was conducted between June and
September in 2019, a questionnaire survey was conducted in both
village groups to assess community knowledge and practices
associated with transmission of human T. solium infections. In each
village, 20 to 25 households were randomly selected to participate,
and in each household, one person was randomly selected to
represent the household. The respondent was consented, interviewed
and sampled 5 mls of blood from the cephalic or median cubital vein
(median basilic vein) by a medical laboratory technician for T. solium
cysticercosis detection. The sera were examined for presence of
excretory secretory circulating antigens of the metacestode of T.
solium using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Ag-ELISA) and
Western blot IgG kit (WB-IgG), which is an immunological method for
detection of exposure to T. solium. During the second phase which
was conducted between July and August 2020, community based
health education intervention trial was implemented using the health
education package. The health education was implemented by first
training livestock/agricultural extension officers, school teachers,
health workers and village leaders to serve as local trainers for
knowledge sustainability purpose. Subsequently, the local trainers
and the researcher trained a total of 440 participants from 21
intervention villages and 432 participants from the 21 control villages
were not trained. The third phase was conducted between September
and December in 2021 a year after intervention, whereby the
questionnaire survey and blood sampling were repeated in selected
study households of the 42 selected villages and was planned to use
the same respondents of phase one. The purpose was to assess the
same factors that were assessed during the baseline phase.
However, only 320 respondents were available in the control villages
and 342 in the intervention villages. A total of 210 participants were
lost during the follow up period that constituted 98 participants from
the intervention villages and 112 participants from control villages.
At baseline, the knowledge of respondents was analysed using the
scoring method whereby a respondent was considered to have high level of knowledge/safety practice or low level of knowledge/safety
practice on a particular variable when his/her total responses scores
were 6-10 points and 0-5 points, respectively. Also, binary logistic
regression model was used to test for associations between
categorical variables. The results indicated that, community level of
knowledge on human T. solium taeniasis/cysticercosis was limited in
the study area, whereby a total of 539 (61.8%) participants had low
knowledge. Regarding preventive practices, it was found that, a total
of 653 (74.9%) participants had low level of practices related to T.
solium taeniasis/ cysticercosis transmission. A total of 572 (65.6%)
participants had low level of knowledge and preventive practices
related to human T. solium taeniasis/cysticercosis in the study area.
However, it was further revealed that participants from Kongwa
District were likely to have higher level of knowledge and preventive
practices than those from Songwe District (OR=2.4). Also,
participants with at least primary level of education were likely to have
higher level of knowledge and preventive practices than those with
informal level of education (OR=3.3). Further descriptive analysis and
regression analysis were used, whereby at baseline a total of 12
(1.4%) individuals tested positive by Ag-ELISA indicating the
presence of circulating antigen of T. solium cysticercosis (active
infection). A total of 21 (2.4%) individuals were tested positive by WB-
IgG assay indicating the presence of circulating IgG antibodies
(exposure to infection). The seropositivity of both tests varied
considerably across demographic, behavioural and clinical factors.
Further analysis found that, participants who were above 45 years of
age were more likely to be infected (OR=6.7) and among this group,
10 (2.8%) and 14 (3.9%) individuals were detected by Ag-ELISA and
WB-IgG assay, respectively.
The effectiveness of the intervention was evaluated by comparing
changes in knowledge, preventive practices related to human T.
solium transmission and cumulative incidence of human T. solium
cysticercosis between intervention and control villages using
Sharpiro-Wilk test, T-test and Wilcoxon test. In addition, the
cumulative incidences of HCC were compared between the
intervention and control groups taking into account that all detected
cases at the baseline were subjected to further clinical management and were not included in the third phase of the study. At baseline, the
study revealed no significant difference in knowledge and practices
mean scores between the control and intervention villages (1.45
±0.94 vs 1.54±1.02, p= 0.24). In addition, no significant difference
was observed in the prevalence of human T. solium cysticercosis
between intervention and the control villages (1.4% vs.1.4%, p =
0.97) by Ag-ELISA. At one year post intervention, the study revealed
a significantly higher knowledge mean scores in the intervention
villages compared to the control villages (2.06 ±1.45 vs 0.94 ±1.18, p
< 0.001). However, there was no significant difference in the mean
practice scores and cumulative incidences of human T. solium
cysticercosis at the intervention compared to the control villages. A
lack of improved preventive practices might be attributed by limited
time to evaluate the effect and the observed insufficient supply of safe
and clean water.
This study reveals that the community based health education
intervention is effective in increasing knowledge on control of human
T. solium infections. However, improvement in preventive practices
and reduction in incidences of human T. solium cysticercosis are a
gradual process, they may require sanitary and hygienic improvement
and more time after the intervention to see the desired effect.
Therefore, the study recommends implementation of this community
based health education intervention to the general public for broader
and permanent effect.Cystinet-SUA project for sponsoring this interdisciplinary research study on poverty-related
and neglected diseases with funding from the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research
Development and acceptability of Mringa fortified porridge for children aged 1-2 years
No full textDissertationBACKGROUND INFORMATION
Malnutrition is a significant public health problem in Tanzania,
particularly among children under the age of five. Chronic under
nutrition under the age of five is associated with less schooling, late
entry into starting school, and between 22 to 45% less income
throughout a lifetime. Inappropriate complementary feeding
practices are linked with high incidences of under nutrition among
infants and young children in Tanzania. Complementary feeding
practices in Tanzania are suboptimal as they do not meet the four
WHO-recommended complementary feeding indicators.
Complementary feeding is the process of introducing solid foods to
an infant's diet while continuing to breastfeed. It is a critical period
for infant growth and development, and appropriate complementary
feeding practices are essential for optimal growth and development.
Inappropriate complementary feeding practices, such as late
introduction of complementary foods, low meal frequency, and low
dietary diversity, are frequent in low- and middle-income countries
(LMICs). A study conducted in Tanzania found that improving
complementary feeding practices is feasible in Tanzania given the
renewed focus on child nutrition in the country. Child nutrition policy
interventions should target all mothers, particularly mothers from low
socioeconomic backgrounds and those with limited access to health
services to maximize results. Another study found that inappropriate
complementary feeding practices have a significant effect on the
nutritional status of children aged 6-24 months in Tanzania.
The current study set out to produce and explore the potential for
nutrient-dense, palatable, and affordable complementary food
products made from nutritious locally available underutilized crops
like Moringa oleifera combined with cereals and other non-cereal METHODOLOGY
Flours made from cleaned and powdered pearl millet, dry dates,
Orange fleshed sweet potato (OFSP), and Moringa leaves were
mixed in different ratios to form seven products to meet the
nutritional requirement for young children aged 1-2 years old. These
flour samples were analyzed for proximate composition based on
AOAC guidelines. The contents for specific minerals (iron, zinc, and
calcium) was analyzed by Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical
Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES). Whereas UV spectroscopy was
used to determine pro-Vitamin A content in the samples.
Additionally, the samples were subjected to functional quality tests to
establish their viscosity, bulk density, and water absorption
capability. Porridge was prepared from the 7 samples stated above.
Consumer acceptability and quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA)
tests were conducted on the porridge samples. The Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS-version 25) was used to
evaluate the test results. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
test was run, with significant differences identified at the 5% level
(p<0.05). The mean ± SD of the duplicate data was used to express
all results. A PCA Biplot was performed to show the correlation
between the samples and characteristics.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The objective of this study was to formulate a highly nutritious and
tasty porridge for children aged between 1-2 years. Seven different
blends were produced based on specific ratios that were calculated
according to Recommended Daily Allowances (RDA) for children
aged 1-2 years. Each ingredient used in the study contributed
differently to both the functional and sensory qualities of the
porridge. Notably, Orange-fleshed sweet potato and Dates generally
enhanced the sensory quality of the porridge samples. The ratios
included 90:2.5:7.5 [PmMD1], 95:2.5:2.5 [PmMD2], 88:3:9 [PmMD3]
for Pearl millet grain flour, Moringa leaf powder, and dates,
respectively. Likewise, ratios of 95.5:2:2.5 [PmMP1], 88:2:10
[PmMP2] and 95:2.5:2.5 [PmMP3] were used for Pearl millet grain
starchy foods. flour, Moringa leaf powder, and Orange-fleshed sweet potato. A
control sample was prepared by blending Pearl millet, Dates, and
Orange-fleshed sweet potato in a ratio of 50:15:35 [PmDP]. The
results showed that the flour's nutritional composition, measured on
a dry weight basis, was as follows: iron, zinc, and calcium contents
ranged between 4.5-6.3, 1.46-1.81, 183-240 mg/100g, respectively;
pro-vitamin A content was 308-497 μg/110g; crude fiber: 2.6-3.3
g/100g; ash: 1.9-2.13 g/100g; crude fat: 0.66-1.38 g/100g;
carbohydrates: 73-77 g/100g and 346-352 g/100g energy.
Significant variations (p<0.05) were observed in bulk density and
viscosity due to differences in the quantities of Orange-fleshed
sweet potato and Dates used, but no significant difference (p>0.05)
was noted in water absorption capacity between these samples.
Sensory evaluation studies recorded significant differences in
aroma, taste, color, and overall acceptability (p<0.05) in all samples.
The sample PmDP was the most preferred in terms of color,
whereas PmMP2 scored the highest score in aroma, taste, and
overall acceptability. Quantitative descriptive analysis revealed no
significant differences (p>0.05) in color, aroma, thickness, and
grittiness between samples. However, there was a significant
difference (p<0.05) in the intensity of sweetness among the
samples, with mean values ranging from1.9 to 4.2. The control
sample [PmDP] scored the highest in sweetness intensity due to the
presence of naturally sweet Orange-fleshed sweet potato and Dates.
A PCA bi-plot illustrated the relationship between the samples and
their attributes.
It was found that adding Moringa to the supplemental food
significantly increased its nutritional value. However, adding more
than 3% Moringa in porridge formulations resulted in higher values
than the RDA, which would limit its use in the stated age group. The
functional qualities are important in influencing qualities related to
storage, transportation, and distribution in addition to sensory
appeal. The acceptance of the samples was enhanced by the
addition of dates and orange-fleshed sweet potatoes. The most -liked sample, PmMP2 (88% pearl millet:2% Moringa leaf
powder:10% orange fleshed sweet potato), was therefore
recommended for toddlers between the ages of one and two years
Status of antestia bug (Antestiopsis spp.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in Arabica Coffee under smallholder farming inTanzania
No full textDissertationCoffee is an imperative cash crop grown in Tanzania for beverage
and household income generating activity. The crop is grown in the
vast and varying landscape of Tanzania. Around 17 out of 26
Regions in Tanzania mainland grow coffee. Both Arabica and
Robusta coffee are grown in Tanzania. Tanzania is the third largest
producer of coffee in Africa after Ethiopia and Uganda, contributing
about one percent of the world`s coffee and ranking the 15th largest
coffee producing country in the world. Close to 90 percent of
Tanzanian coffee is produced by some 450 000 small families
operations on 265 000 hectares of land of which 120 000 are in the
Robusta growing areas of Kagera. The remaining ten percent of
coffee is grown by larger producers (Estates). The production and
trade in coffee contributes indirectly to the incomes of roughly seven
percent of Tanzania`s 60 million population. Arabica coffee
production in Tanzania accounts for 70% of the total coffee
produced in the country. The giant Arabica coffee producing
Regions in Tanzania are Kilimanjaro, Ruvuma and Songwe.
Coffee is Tanzania`s second largest export cash crop, accounting
for 24% of the country's total foreign exchange earnings after
Tobacco. Coffee export has generated about USD 100 million per
year over the past 15 years. In the 2018/2019 coffee season,
Tanzania exported a total of 68,147 MT of green coffee beans, with
Japan accounting for 34% of this volume, Italy 18%, Germany 11%,
Belgium 10% and the USA 10%. Despite these admirable facts
coffee production is constrained by abiotic and biotic factors.
Recently smallholder Arabica coffee farmers reported the presence
of pentatomid, variegated bugs which destructs all the vegetative
and fruiting part of coffee tree, likewise, Tanzania Coffee Board
reported about stagnated coffee production. These problems were
allied with the presence of the Antestia bug in coffee fields. The
Antestia bug (Antestiopsis spp.) has been mentioned among the
major pests of coffee in Tanzania. The pest has not been
extensively studied creating a huge knowledge gap about status. Knowledge on the Antestia bugs abundance and their species is
lacking. This study aimed at bridging that gap by establishing the
Antestia bug status to enable farmers, extension officers and
decision makers to have appropriate knowledge for developing
suitable management strategies and options for managing the pest.
The studies were carried out in three major Arabica coffee producing
regions namely; Kilimanjaro, Ruvuma and Songwe. Diagnostic
surveys were conducted through a multistage sampling method
used to select Districts and farms to be studied. In each Region; two
Districts were selected in which three villages were selected. Twenty
smallholder coffee farms were subsequently randomly selected in
each Village for the study. In each farm numbers of coffee trees
were selected according to specific objectives. A total of 360 farms
(120 from each region) were selected each with 64 coffee trees that
were visited for data collection in 12 months. Thus, a total of 23,040
coffee trees were used for the study. To determine the Antestia bug
species and abundance in the three Regions visual physical counts
were adopted coupled with sampling of Antestia bug specimens
every month. Using the available identification key, the collected
Antestia bugs (Antestiopsis spp.) were identified in the field based
on morphological features. Specimens (nymphs) that were difficult to
identify up to species level were collected in perforated bottles and
reared at Tanzania Coffee Research Institute (TaCRI) to allow full
development of their colors and strips on the pronotum and
scutellum. Aided by literature, the identification of reared Antestia
bug was made possible coupled with confirmation of the species
expert at SUA and TPHPA in Arusha.
Obtained results established the existence of only one species of
Antestiopsis orbitalis Westwood with two subspecies namely
Antestiopsis orbitalis bechuana Kirkaldy and Antestiopsis orbitalis
ghesquiere Carayon exist. Of the 748.96 total number of specimens
collected 637.39 (85.10%) were A. orbitalis bechuana and 111.57
(14.90%) were A. orbitalis ghesquiere. The region-wise discretion of
pest abundance suggested contribution of 62.44%, 26.90% and
10.65% by Kilimanjaro, Ruvuma and Songwe Regions respectively. The canopy shade intensity played a significant role on the
abundance of Antestia bugs. A statistically highly significant
(P<0.001) difference was established on the Antestia bugs, with the
dense shade canopy having higher pest population than the
sparsely shaded ones. Pearson's linear correlation analysis of
Antestia bug damage indices suggested a positive relationship
between dense shade canopy and Antestia bug damage on foliage,
flowers and fruits incidences and severities.
Likewise, the coffee fruiting phenology had a significant (p<0.001)
effect on bug density. The finding provided insights into the species,
abundance and distribution of Antestia bugs on Arabica coffee in
Tanzania. Furthermore, the incidence and severity of Antestia bug
(Antestiopsis spp.) was determined. Manifestation of Antestia bug
damage through symptoms and signs were used to gauge the pest
incidences and severity based on the established scales. Results
suggested that all Regions were infested by Antestia bugs albeit at
varied intensities with the highest incidence and severity being in
Kilimanjaro both in dense and sparse shade locations, where the
average bugs number per tree was 4.29, 3.25, average incidence of
foliage (39.95%, 31.3%), flowers (45.03%, 33.15%), and fruits
(56.78%, 43.08%) and average severity was foliage (1.99, 1.55),
flower (2.26, 1.66) and fruits severity (2.96, 2.06) respectively. In
Kilimanjaro, the maximum number of Antestia bugs, incidence and
severity recorded was 12.4, 100%, and 5 respectively. The two other
regions; Ruvuma and Songwe had relatively low numbers, incidence
and severity of Antestia bug. The lowest counts were established in
Songwe Region at Ileje District with abundance, incidence and
severity of 0.01, 0, 0 score respectively. Dense shade had the
highest Antestia bug damage incidence than sparse shade canopy
(p<0.05).
Conclusively, the current study shaded insights into the species,
incidence and severity of Antestia bugs on Arabica coffee fields as
well as the influence of canopy shades and fruiting phenology on the
pest in Tanzania. The study possibly escalates the necessity to
understand the effects of shade, and fruit phenology in the buildup of Antestia bug population in the coffee field for development of
effective management options. Furthermore, the study provides a
clear picture of critical time for controlling Antestia bugs through
intervention on the fruit phenology during which increase of the
Antestia bugs to damage the crop is stimulated. Although the pest is
omnipresent in all surveyed regions, Kilimanjaro was the worst
affected while Songwe was the least affected.
Concerted efforts to manage the pests are highly advised to
minimize the losses caused by the alarming population density of
the pest on coffee crops. Education to smallholder coffee farmers on
pest monitoring, canopy shade management, use of pest resistant
improved varieties and rational spray of insecticides in the IPM-
based approach is advised. Further studies on naturally existing
natural enemies that may be used for biological control may be over-
emphasized.Tanzania Coffee Boar
Rodent borne pathogens infecting mastomys natalensis in selected areas of Morogoro and Iringa, Tanzania
No full textDissertationThe study on the rodent borne pathogens infecting Mastomys
natalensis in selected sites of Morogoro and Iringa was conducted
between January, 2021 and July, 2022. Various studies have
shown that, human and animal diseases caused by viruses,
bacteria, and parasites carried by rodents are on the increase,
however, relatively, little is known of the prevalence and dynamics
of infections by Trichuris spp. Leptospira spp. Bartonella spp. and
other helminths in rodents and their ectoparasites. Similarly, little
is known on the effectiveness of broad spectrum anthelminthics
on gastrointestinal parasites of rodents.
In this study, the prevalence and seasonal variation of Trichuris
worm infection in rodents was investigated. In addition, molecular
detection of Leptospira spp. and Bartonella spp. in M. natalensis
and its ectoparasites was studied. Furthermore, the effect of
Ivermectin® against gastrointestinal helminths was determined.
These studies were carried out between January 2021 and July
2022.
The study aimed at addressing three key specific objectives; i)
Determining prevalence and seasonal variation of Trichuris worms
infection in M. natalensis in Morogoro and Iringa regions ii)
Molecular detection of Leptospira spp. and Bartonella spp. in M.
natalensis and its ectoparasites in Morogoro iii) Determining the
effect of Ivermectin® on Intestinal helminths in the multimmate
mouse (M. natalensis).
The study sites were in Morogoro and Iringa regions. In Morogoro
region, the studies were carried out in Choza, Kiroka and in an
enclosed area (Fence) close to Sokoine University of Agriculture
main campus. For Iringa region, Isimani and Idodi villages were
selected.
Mastomys natalensis was used throughout the study as the model
rodent species because it is known to carry a number of athogens. Also, it is the most abundant, dominant and most
studied species of the small mammals in Tanzania.
To address the first specific objective, the study was conducted
between January and November, 2021 in Morogoro and Iringa
regions. These regions differ significantly in their eco-climatic
conditions. Removal trapping was conducted using Sherman® live
traps in rainy and dry seasons. Gastrointestinal tracts of captured
rodents were screened for the presence of Trichuris worms and
identified using morphological keys. The effect of geographical
region, season and sex of the rodents on Trichuris worm
infections were tested using a generalized linear model with
binomial function. Data were analyzed using R Statistical Software
4.1.3 at a p- value of 0.05. For the second objective, M. natalensis
were captured live in fallow habitats using Sherman® traps and
anesthetized using halothane. Blood samples were obtained from
the retroorbital sinus and ectoparasites were removed from the fur
using a hard brush and preserved in 70% ethanol. Real Time –
qPCR followed by Sanger sequencing was used to detect
Leptospira spp. and Bartonella spp. from the blood and
ectoparasites respectively. Confidence intervals (95% CI) for the
prevalence of Bartonella spp. and Leptospira spp. in M. natalensis
was determined at the level of alpha of 0.05. The statistical
difference in Bartonella spp. infection in mites from males and
females M. natalensis was determined using a two-tailed student’s
t-test.
For the third objective, rodents were live captured from the open
field as well as free ranging rodents from “Fence”. The animals
were marked, caged individually and supplied with feed and water
ad libitum. A total of 45 animals were released into each of two
enclosed plots (treatment and control groups).
The treatment group received a single dose of an aqueous
suspension of Ivermectin® (0.0007ml/l), while the control group
was left untreated. The animals from both plots were captured
biweekly and screened for helminths eggs over a period of eight weeks. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the
mean variation of gastrointestinal helminths burden before and
after treatment with Ivermectin®.
The following were the results of these studies. i) A total of 200 M.
natalensis were studied from each of the two regions, consisting
of 100 animals per season. For Morogoro, the overall prevalence
of Trichuris worms in M. natalensis was 36% (n=72), of which
42/200 and 30/200 were for the rainy and dry seasons
respectively. For Iringa, the overall prevalence was 65% (n=130),
of which 80/200 and 50/200 were for the rainy and dry seasons
respectively. Trichuris worm infection was significantly higher
during the rainy season in Iringa than in Morogoro and no
significant difference in infection was observed between males
and females in either of the two regions or seasons. Other forms
of helminths detected were Strongyloides spp., Capillaria spp.,
Hymenolepis spp. and eggs of a yet to be confirmed helminths,
possibly an Anoplocephalid sp.
ii) For the molecular studies, Leptospira spp. was demonstrated in
one out of 100 M. natalensis while, for Bartonella spp., the
prevalence of (14%) was recorded in mites with a higher
proportion in adult males than in females. Upon Sanger
sequencing, four positive samples showed a complete sequence
of the ITS gene. Indicating that all samples belonged to
Uncultured Bartonella.
iii) With regard to the effect of Ivermectin® on intestinal helminths,
there was no significant difference in Strongiloides spp., H. nana
and Physaloptera spp. infection before and after treatment.
However, a significant reduction of H. diminuta and Trichuris
worms was observed in the treated animals. No significant
increase in the number of worms recorded in the control group.
The overall prevalence of helminths in M. natalensis was
significantly higher in male than female rodents. To address the gaps identified from these studies, there is a need
for improved surveillance of rodents borne diseases in the studied
regions and elsewhere and to establish strategic control programs
to reduce their adverse impact on health. This is important,
considering that rodents and specifically M. natalensis is the most
abundant rodent pest species in sub-Saharan Africa and
maintenance host and carrier of diverse zoonotic pathogens.
Further interventions to raise awareness of the role of commensal
rodents and their ecto/endoparasites in disease transmission are
recommended. Also, Ivermectin® is recommended for use in
treatment against helminths. However, it is recommended to
investigate the scope of its effectiveness in diverse helminths.African Centre of
Excellence for Innovative Rodent Pest Management and
Biosensor Technology Development (ACE-IRPM and BTD) at the
Institute of Pest Management, Sokoine University of Agriculture
(SUA-IPM) and the Research Foundation Flanders (FWO) at the
University of Antwerp (UA)
Commonly caught fish species as potential indicators of pollution along lake nyasa (lake Malawi), Tanzania
No full textBook chapterThe chapter presented the potential use of frequently caught fish species
from Lake Nyasa as bioindicators of pollution that is likely to be a result of
human activities. The effects of pollution can be magnified if proper and
periodic assessments of risks associated with the pollution are not properly
done. The sampling and analyses of pollutants accumulated in the sediments
is always difficult. However, pollution induces stresses that can be detected
through the molecular analysis of the fish. Thus, parameters such as genetic
diversity, haplotype diversity (h), nucleotide diversity (π), observed heterozy-
gosity (Ho) and unbiased expected heterozygosity can be used as potential
indicators of the effects of pollution in aquatic systems.
It is also possible for a pollutant contained in the aquatic systems to accu-
mulate in the body tissues of the fish. The concentration of persistent and
non-biodegradable heavy metals in fish increases with eating behaviour, age
or rate of exposure. Thus, the concentration of heavy metals may vary from
one fish species to another depending on the factors. The heavy metals accu-
mulated in the body of the fish can be used to estimate potential risks that
can be caused by pollution to human health.
The toxicity of a pollutant highly depends on the chemical form in which
it is present in the aqueous environment. For example, organic mercury is
more toxic compared to inorganic mercury due to its ability to penetrate
through various blood barriers and cause neurological damage. The chem-
ical characteristics of a toxicant vary from one another. Thus, to estimate
potential risks associated with a certain pollutant, the analysis of a specific
chemical species is required. The use of fish as a potential bioindicator can
be significantly more relevant, if these aspects are borne in mind during the
chemical speciation analysis
Ecology of small mammals and their ectoparasites in Mount Meru, Tanzania: insights for biodiversity conservation
No full textPhD ThesisThis Thesis has been prepared in accordance with the Publishable
Manuscripts format of the Sokoine University of Agriculture. The
study on the elevational distribution of non-volant small mammals
over time, their demographic characteristics, and their associations
with arthropod ectoparasites was conducted between 2021 and
2022 at different elevations and habitats in Tanzania's second-
highest mountain, Mount Meru. Mount Meru is one of the
biodiversity hotspots in eastern Africa, hosting high level of species
richness and endemism, and providing important ecosystem
services. However, relatively, little is known about the ecology of
small mammals and their arthropod ectoparasites. Similarly, little is
known about the effects of environmental factors on the small
mammal distribution, which potentially extending to the parasites
they host. Tanzania is among the handful of countries in Africa
where active foci of deadly zoonotic diseases that can be
transmitted by small mammals and their ectoparasite vectors have
been persistent. Moreover, Mount Meru is home for endemic and
threatened species that are documented on the IUCN Red List.
However, there is currently no available information regarding the
possible role of arthropod ectoparasites of small mammals in the
transmission of zoonotic disease.
The over all goal of the study was to understand the ecological
dynamics and distribution patterns of small mammals and their
arthropod ectoparasites across different elevations of Mount Meru in
Tanzania. The study aimed at addressing three key specific
objectives: i) Assesing a decade-long change in the elevational
distribution of non-volant small mammals on Mount Meru; ii)
determining the breeding and demographic aspects of montemys
delectorum, an east african endemic rodent in mount Meru;
iii) Examining arthropod ectoparasites of two rodent species occurring
in varied elevations on Tanzania’s second highest mountain. To address the first objective, the small mammals were surveyed
from February to November 2021 at six elevations between 1500 m
and 3650 m using Sherman and Havahart traps. The results show
that two shrew and thirteen rodent species were recorded, including
Crocidura newmarki and Lophuromys verhageni, which are endemic
to the study area. Species richness was highest at mid-altitudes, in
line with the general patterns globally, though less pronounced in
Africa. The species Arvicanthis niloticus, Mastomys natalensis,
Lemniscomys striatus, Dasymys incomtus, and Cricetomys ansorgei
were not documented in 2009 but have been recorded in 2021.
Upward shifts in species’ ranges were observed between 2009 and
2021, suggesting the influence of climate change on the small
mammal community.
It is important to note that the rodent species mentioned in Chapter 2
as Praomys species have been identified as Montemys delectorum
after genetic identification and recent taxonomic revisions.
For the second objective, a Capture – mark – release studies were
undertaken in dense and open patchy forests in four 70 m X 70 m
grids from February 2021 to June 2022. The findings revealed that
the species exhibited bimodal patterns of breeding seasonality,
characterized by a low rate occurring during the short interval
between December and February and a pronounced rate taking
place from May to July. The population of Montemys delectorum
was unstable in the different forest types. There was a larger
population in the patchy open forest (F = 8.1; df = 1; p = 0.0001)
than in dense forest, suggesting its importance as a refuge for the
species.
To achieve the third objective, trapping of the two most dominant
rodent species of the study area, Montemys delectorum and
Rhabdomys dilectus, from five elevations (1500 to 3500 m), were
examined for arthropod ectoparasite infestations. The results
revealed that Ctenophthalmus calceatus cabirus, Dinopsyllus
ellobius, Varroa rindereri, and Xenopsylla cheopis were recovered
from the rodents. This study demonstrates that the elevational
distribution of arthropod ectoparasites is influenced by host sex, host
species, and environmental temperature. With rising altitude,
parasite prevalence and abundance decrease, indicating that colder
environmental conditions at higher altitudes inhibit parasite
reproduction and development. This indicates conservation efforts
should focus on higher altitudes. Moreover, the rodents and
ectoparasites reported in this study have been identified as possible
vectors of medical and veterinary diseases in different parts of
Africa, including Tanzania. It is crucial to take precautions in order to
effectively reduce the risk of parasitic infection, which can pose an
additional threat to both the endemic and threatened species listed
on the IUCN Red List as well as the overall biodiversity of the study
area. Furthermore, molecular results from this study reported a
previously unidentified mite species within the Mesostigmata
taxonomic group that had previously been recognized exclusively as
a parasite of honeybees. Further research efforts may provide
insights into the significance of this particular species of mite, Varroa
rindereri. Generally, while there remains much to be learned, this
particular study establishes the foundation for future initiatives in
wildlife disease surveillance and biodiversity conservation
management.
In abroader sense, the shift in the distribution of small mammals and
their ectoparasites on Mount Meru is a microcosm of the broader
challenges facing mountain ecosystems worldwide. These insights
go beyond the immediate context of Mount Meru and suggest that
we need to consider the long-term consequences of environmental
dynamics on biodiversity conservation. As these complexities
continue to shape mountain landscapes, their impact is not limited to
species interactions but also touches the field of human well-being.
The conservation of biodiversity is intrinsically linked to our own well-
being, as biodiversity and human societies are intricately intertwined.
Therefore, the findings of this research serve as an urgent reminder
for effective conservation action.The African Center of Excellence for Innovative Rodent Pest
Management and Biosensor Technology Development (ACE
IRPM&BTD) ACE II‒ Credit number 5799‒TZ at Sokoine University
of Agriculture, Tanzania
Gendered participation in afforestation at the household level in Njombe District, Njombe Region, Tanzania
No full textThe sub Saharan Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (SJSSH), pp. 31-40Gender participation in afforestation across Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), including Tanzania, is increasingly
recognized as a key pathway for promoting sustainable tree resource management and enhancing livelihood opportunities.
Active involvement of both women and men in tree-related activities can foster equitable benefits and long-term sustainability.
However, the extent and impact of gender-based participation remain under-explored and often poorly reflected in national
economic accounts. This study investigates the role of gender in afforestation within Njombe District, Tanzania. Specifically,
it examines levels of gendered participation, explores the factors influencing involvement, and analyzes the impact of
afforestation on household income. A total of 120 households were randomly selected for the study. Data collection methods
included household surveys, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and personal observation. Quantitative data
were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics, while qualitative data were examined through content analysis.
Findings reveal that gender significantly shapes afforestation practices. Males, whether in male- or female-headed
households, commonly maintain control over resources—dictating ownership, use, and benefit distribution. While women are
granted access rights, their participation and influence in decision-making processes remain limited. Male dominance is
evident across all stages of afforestation, from nursery management and harvesting to marketing and revenue allocation,
particularly regarding high-value products such as timber and poles. The study concludes that afforestation activities are
predominantly male-driven. It recommends integrating gender considerations into household-level decision-making to
promote more inclusive and effective afforestation system
Participation in village savings and lending associations and rice profitability in Tanzania: application of propensity score matching and endogenous switching regression
No full textJournal articleWe assess the contribution of participation in bundled service-bundled VSLAs on rice productivity and profit
among smallholder rice farmers in Mvomero District, Tanzania. The study propensity score matching (PSM) and
endogenous switching regression (ESR) models, and found that participation in VSLA has a positive and sig
nificant contribution to rice productivity and profit for smallholder rice farmers. Participation in VSLAs increases
farmers’ ability to regenerate income for investing in improving productivity and profitability and enhancing rice
sector development. VSLAs prove as a tool for building financial capital through savings and easy access to credit
in rural areas. This study improves on existing research and offers new insights into the effects of VSLA as one of
the financial inclusion tools on the economic activities of agricultural households in Tanzania