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Tracking the Rate of Initiation and Retention on Isoniazid Preventive Therapy in a High Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Tuberculosis Burden Setting of Lesotho
Get PDFPublished ArticleBackground: Tuberculosis (TB) remains a public health problem, particularly in people living
with human immunodeficiency virus (PLHIV). Yet, efforts to reduce TB incidence using
isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT) have been curtailed by poor uptake of this intervention.
This study reviewed the rate of IPT initiation in the sub-Saharan country of Lesotho, which has
one of the highest TB incidences in the world.
Methods: Time to IPT initiation in randomly sampled medical records of PLHIV was analysed
using Cox’s proportional hazards regression. Differences in the periods of enrolment into
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) care were controlled for by considering the year IPT
was launched (2011) as the base year and stratifying the medical records into the 2004–2010
cohort (before the launch of IPT) and the 2011–2016 cohort (after the launch).
Results: Out of 2955 patients included in the final analysis, 68.8% had received IPT by the
study exit time. However, the overall rate of IPT initiation was 20.6 per 100 person-years, with
135 (6.6%) treatment interruptions. Compared to the 2004–2010 cohort, the 2011–2016 had a
significantly (p < 0.05) higher rate of initiation (15.8 vs. 27.0 per 100 person-years, respectively).
Age group, district category and duration of antiretroviral therapy emerged as the most
significant predictors of IPT initiation, while district category and gender significantly
predicted IPT therapy interruption.
Conclusion: These findings indicate a high uptake of IPT with a slow rate of implementation.
Significant factors associated with disparities in the initiation and interruption of IPT therapy
in this study are important for policy review
Research Article Investigating the Angiogenic Modulating Properties of Spirostachys Africana in MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cell Line
Get PDFPublished ArticleBackground and Objectives: Angiogenesis is the process of forming new capillary vessels from existing ones. This process is implicated in tumour growth, metastasis and wound healing. During tumour metastasis, angiogenesis is amplified as new capillaries are needed for cancer to spread. However, when this process is inhibited, wound healing is impaired. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and lipoxygenase (LOX) are some of the enzymes that are highly expressed during angiogenesis and therefore provide a useful way to detect angiogenesis. Some medicinal plants have shown to possess angiogenetic-modulating properties, which has led to the development of anti-angiogenic drugs for the treatment of cancer. Spirostachys africana sond has been used historically to treat open wounds, ulcers and cancer. Nevertheless, its mechanism of action is still unclear. The aim of this study was to determine mechanisms of anticancer and wound healing activities of S. africana by evaluating its effects on the proliferation of MCF-7 cells and on the activities of COX-2, LOX and NOS. Materials and Methods: The dried plant materials were extracted with water and sequentially with organic solvents in their order of increasing polarity. Extracts were screened for cell growth inhibitory activity against breast cancer MCF-7 cells and for selectivity against normal breast MCF-10A cells. Extracts that showed growth inhibitory activity with IC50 values <10 μg mL–1 were further evaluated for effects on COX-2, LOX and NOS enzymatic activity. Results: The non-polar extracts of all plant parts had anti-proliferation activity with IC50 of 10 μg mL–1 or lower. All the leaf extracts showed selectivity for MCF-7 breast cancer. The selected extracts also induced NOS activity and inhibited LOX and COX-2 activity in a concentration dependent manner. Conclusion: It was concluded that the selected extracts may suppress angiogenesis by inhibiting COX-2 and LOX and induce apoptosis by increasing NOS activity. Spirostachys africana was found to contain tannins, glycosides, saponins and alkaloids which could be responsible for the biological activity observed
Perioperative Blood Loss in South African Primary Hip Arthroplasty Patients
Get PDFPrimary ResearchBackground: Perioperative blood loss in South
African (SA) primary hip arthroplasty patients has
not been described. This information could improve
patient management during the perioperative period in
this setting. Our study objectives were to 1) determine
perioperative blood loss in SA primary hip arthroplasty
patients, and 2) determine which characteristics are
associated with major perioperative blood loss in SA
primary hip arthroplasty patients.
Methods: This was a retrospective cohort study of
174 patients who underwent primary hip arthroplasty
over a 22-month period at the Inkosi Albert Luthuli
Hospital, SA. All patients were part of a pre-existing
registry. Data for each patient included: Age, gender,
anthropometric measurements, comorbidity, orthopaedic
variables, laboratory test results, American Society of
Anesthesiologists Score, general anaesthesia, duration
of surgery, preoperative tranexamic acid, postoperative
thromboprophylaxis, and perioperative blood transfusion.
Estimated perioperative blood loss (in mL) was calculated
using the Gross Equation. Minimum, maximum, mean,
and median perioperative blood loss were calculated.
Major perioperative blood loss was defined as an estimated
perioperative blood loss which was >75th percentile
obtained for the study sample. Data were analyzed using
appropriate methods.
Results: Perioperative blood loss ranged from 10.3
mL to 3041.8 mL. Mean perioperative blood loss was
1103.1 ± 556.2 mL. Median perioperative blood loss was
1008.8 mL, with an interquartile range of 706.2–1357.0
mL. Independent statistical associations were observed
between major perioperative blood loss and the following
characteristics: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(OR: 3.01, 95% CI: 1.01–8.95; p=0.048), preoperative
tranexamic acid (OR: 0.28, 95% CI: 0.13–0.63; p=0.002),
and perioperative blood transfusion (OR: 10.18, 95% CI:
3.53–29.34; p<0.001).
Conclusion: The levels of perioperative blood loss
observed in our sample of SA primary hip arthroplasty
patients are consistent with the range of estimated
blood loss reported in the published literature for hip
arthroplasty populations in other countries. SA primary
hip arthroplasty patients who suffer major perioperative
blood loss are more likely to have COPD or require
perioperative blood transfusion. Preoperative tranexamic
acid was protective against major perioperative blood loss
Areas of Good Practice and Areas for Improvement in Work-Integrated Learning for Radiography Training in South Africa
Get PDFPublished ArticleBackground. Work-integrated learning (WIL) forms an essential part of many learning programmes to equip students with the required knowledge and
a complete set of skills to be successful in the world of work. However, all aspects (teaching/learning, assessment and monitoring) of WIL have to be
implemented appropriately to ensure quality learning for students to construct meaning from their learning.
Objective. To conduct an enquiry regarding the current practices for WIL in radiography training.
Methods. Using a questionnaire, a quantitative survey was conducted among selected university lecturers, workplace learning co-ordinators and finalyear
radiography students at 7 South African universities.
Results. The results revealed the following areas of good practice: inclusion of activities to stimulate deep learning, development of soft skills, good
management/co-ordination of WIL and existing good lines of communication. Improvement measures for identified areas include: use of different
learning modes, increased use of electronic teaching media, involvement of workplace supervisors in the development of outcomes and learning material,
quality supervision and adequate preparation of students prior to placement.
Conclusions. This study recommends the inclusion of WIL as part of the curriculum in healthcare programmes to assist students with the continuous
development of new disciplinary knowledge and application of the acquired skills in the work environment
Microbial Analysis Of Raw Milk Around Small Scale Farmers In Harrismith Freestate, South Africa
Get PDFDissertationFood manufacturing and agricultural industry have an ancient history of been observed to provide the most favourable conditions for the multiplication and distribution of microorganisms. These microorganisms may be found in the air (airborne), food (milk) and at the surrounding environment. Food handlers have also been found to harbour some of these microorganisms on their hands or skin surfaces. Dairy environment have been receiving quite an extensive attention especially on the composition of microbes in milk. However, studies that have been conducted mostly utilized conventional/traditional microbiological techniques. Hence, there is still lack of research in South Africa that is focusing on molecular techniques to quantify these microorganisms in raw milk.
The overall aim of this dissertation was to assess different microorganisms confined in raw milk from small-scale farmers in the Eastern part of the Free State Province, South Africa. With reference to the main aim of this study, the objectives of the present study were to use molecular techniques to quantify five mostly isolated microorganisms causing subclinical mastitis in bovine .i.e. E. coli, S. aureus, S. agalactiae, S. dysgalactiae and S. uberis. Then lastly, a metagenomic analysis of raw milk was conducted by targeting the 16S rRNA gene using high throughput sequencing.
The findings of this study in relation to microbial composition as per Chapter 2 showed a high microbial contamination of raw milk and has clearly indicated the need for training of all employees and the enforcement of health and hygiene measures within the dairy environment. While investigating the prevalence of subclinical mastitis around these farms, the author came across some interesting findings. The author isolated streptococcal species that are more prevalent/isolated in the hospital environment especially on samples derived from human subjects after/during streptococcal infections such as meningitis. Instead of isolating streptococcal species more prevalent on the dairy environment such as, S. dysgalactiae or S. uberis, the author identified S. mutans, S. Salivarius, S. pneumonia and S. sanguis which may entail that the employees around the farms are/were the carriers of these species.
The isolation of microorganisms associated with food spoilage and foodborne disease outbreaks, which are known as indicator organisms such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus and Bacillus from both air and surface samples, signified possible faecal contamination and could be attributed to poor health and hygiene practices at the dairy farm plant. Despite the isolation of microorganisms associated with food spoilage and foodborne disease outbreaks, the isolation of microorganisms not usually associated with the food processing industry (usually associated with hospital environments) was an enormous and serious concern which suggested a need for further investigations at dairy farm plants as the implications of these pathogenic microorganisms in food is not known
Capacity Building Towards Accredited Certification Of Food Safety Management Systems In Ethiopia
Get PDFDissertationFood has become an easy commodity to trade, especially on continents where many countries are stricken by poverty, drought, food insecurity, political uncertainties and various types and forms of disease and health challenges based on, for example, malnutrition. Food can be produced by small businesses and trade can be informal in order to sustain a community. The export of food is, however, required to support economic growth, and cross-border trade has become increasingly formal through the demands in the trading of safe food. The burden of food-borne disease, its link to food insecurity and possible litigation for the food handler has led to the development of controlled food safety management systems (FSMS). Some systems are voluntary through the application of national or international standards and some systems are being used to ensure trade through the application of private standards and schemes, which in some way appears to be mandatory in order to trade, but is still not regulatory. Both system types are in demand to demonstrate verified compliance with the overall aim to mitigate food safety risks. The need to comply with such systems is a burden to the food handler and, as such, is a constraint to sustainable economic development. They are perceived by some to be an additional technical barrier to trade.
In developing countries, the informal food trade as a means of sustainable livelihood has been increasing and is thus becoming a potentially valuable resource for trade with developed countries. Through their membership of the WTO, which has an obligation to support developing nations, such countries are provided with various types of sponsored assistance intended to help them achieve necessary economic growth and sustainability. The trading agreements of the WTO support developing countries with the eradication of barriers to trade, but also place them in a position to participate in verified compliance with international standards and best practices. This has led to food handlers of developing countries being faced with the dilemma of only being able to engage in cross-border trade when formal food safety certification can be demonstrated. Ethiopia, is similar to many of the developing countries on the African continent in terms of its challenges to be sustainable and to grow economically. As such, it became one of the nominated sponsor countries that had to be supported with the development of their National Quality Infrastructure (NQI). Some parts of the NQI had already been established, but required assistance to ensure their proper functioning, especially towards food safety control and certification needs in terms of conformity assessment. Various donor organizations have frequently been deployed to Ethiopia and are working collectively on building capacity in support of sustainable development and economic growth. One of the sponsor programmes involved in the support to the Quality and Standards Authority of Ethiopia (QSAE) was the Ethiopian Conformity Assessment Enterprise (ECAE). The ECAE had to set up an FSMS certification scheme for Ethiopia with the overall aim to be accredited as part of the functional operation of the NQI within the country.
This study was conducted in Ethiopia in support of building capacity towards the establishment, application and accreditation of an FSMS certification scheme based on ISO 22000 (2005). The project stemmed from efforts applied to developing countries as part of the WTO‟s role and responsibility in promoting trade, supporting developing countries and ensuring the appropriateness of NQIs in accessing global markets. The aim of the study was primarily to establish the success of this mediation and the application of experts through a donor funding organization. The study ultimately aimed to assess the effectiveness of capacity building projects instituted by donor organizations on the establishment, for example of sustainable FSMS certification through NQI development, utilizing Ethiopia as a case study.
An overview analysis was conducted to establish the collaborative roles of the NQI role players in relation to the needs for the operation of a certification body and in general the support to a food handler who requires certification and also to ensure safe food is produced, handled and traded. The emphasis of the study was placed on the activities, processes and competencies of the ECAE, the nominated „national‟ certification body in Ethiopia. The ECAE was already certifying against the ISO 9001 standard, applied for quality management systems (QMS), and had already achieved the accreditation for this certification scheme. These certification processes had to be extended to include food safety, and in particular ISO 22000, a recognized international standard applied to support the trade of safe food.
Further empirical work included a gap assessment of the QMS manual established for QMS certification and all the relevant certification processes that could be applied to food safety certification and also in what way food safety certification processes can be integrated with the QMS certification processes. The assessment of the QMS manual was consequently extended to the auditor pool to determine whether the current pool of auditors qualified for the competency requirements set out by the international standard for food safety certification, for example ISO/TS 22003 (2007).
The study subsequently investigated, and developed training sessions for food safety certification personnel. This involved lecture-based training on the developed FSMS certification processes as well as overviews of the ISO 22000 standard and its application in a food handling facility. The classroom training was supported by the practical application of food safety auditing practices in the field where certified and non-certified food facilities were visited.
The study was conducted over a period of two years and encompassed assessments, identification of gaps, development of the required certification processes, and progress assessments with regard to the application of the developed processes to ensure a successful accreditation of the FSMS certification scheme. Information available on NQI on high-level was found to be readily available, however operational food safety-specific information relevant to Ethiopia was limited. Literature highlighted the fact that developing countries, which include Ethiopia, face challenges with the development and on-going effective and viable application of a NQI framework due to, for example lack of resources. Technical barrier to trade are a further predicament that developing countries have to contend with. It is suggested that a carefully planned assessment of the level of capacity and therefore the level of the need for capacity building be carried out and evaluated before a capacity building project is initiated. Through the gap analysis conducted this study further found that the primary QMS provided by Ethiopian Certification Directorate was generally falling short of supporting further incorporation of a secondary certification scheme. In chapter 4 of this study an assessment was done to measure implementation of gap analysis related strategies following an agreed period. The result showed that the strategies suggested during phase 1 were not implemented due to various reasons, with the result that the next phase of capacity development could not be realised.
The study findings ultimately suggest that donor-based capacity building projects do not always have the intended result, primarily due to poor project management, resistance to change and unrealistic time frames. Also, the beneficiaries did not take adequate ownership of the initiatives. The study further revealed that unique dynamics related to national characteristics such as culture, change management resistance, race and gender considerations, traditional beliefs, etc. play a fundamental role in the success of implementation of FSMSs by external (international) experts. It is recommended that national and culture dynamics be a consideration in selecting beneficiaries, international experts, methodologies and strategies, and be reflected in the development of novel project management approaches
Assessing The Impact Of The Mandela-Castro Medical Collaboration Programme In Promoting Health Care Service Delivery In The Frances Baard District Hospitals, Northern Cape Province
Get PDFDissertationThe rural health care facilities have been facing the critical shortage of medical doctors where approximately 43% of the people in the rural areas often face greater health challenges such as having access to a mere 12% of the medical workforce in the Republic of South Africa (RSA) (Motala and Van Wyk, 2016:74). The reforms made after 1994 have thus, failed to bring about the necessary change in human resources for health (HRH) to improve access to health, especially in the rural areas. Various intervention measures such as the introduction of scarce skill allowance, rural allowance, community service, were among some of the interventions adopted by Northern Cape Department of Health (NDoH) intended to improve health care service delivery in the rural districts. One of the interventions, since 2000, to improve health care services in rural communities was to recruit candidates from poor communities to study medicine in Cuba through the Mandela-Castro Medical Collaboration Programme (MCMCP). The purpose of this study was to assess whether the MCMCP have assisted to promote health care service delivery in the small district hospitals in the Frances Baard (FBDM) area in the Northern Cape Province (NCP). To investigate the problem highlighted above, the research approach applied was deductive in nature and used quantitative data to generate propositions. The study was based on quantitative research and the non-experimental design namely an opinion-based survey in the form of a structured questionnaire to determine the attitude of hospital staff on the impact of the MCMCP in promoting health care service delivery in the FBDM hospitals, NCP was used. It was demonstrated that the provision of health care in the FBDM hospitals was mainly delivered by female health professionals and that the existing health professionals were aging. Although, it was concluded that RSA-Cuban trained medical doctors who took part in the MCMCP programme seemed to have a positive impact in the rural health care facilities, they had, however, demonstrated a degree of uncertainty to remain in the rural areas to alleviate the shortage of doctors. The suggested recommendations could be useful to improve the MCMCP and health care service delivery in FB district hospitals in NCP. The study also made a contribution to the theory of health care service delivery in the context of SA
Comparative Analysis Of Secondary Metabolite Biosynthetic Gene Clusters And Associated P450S In The Genera Streptomyces And Mycobacterium
Get PDFSpecies belonging to the genera Streptomyces and Mycobacterium are well known for their contrasting lifestyle and impact on humans. Streptomyces species produce two-thirds of antibiotics, secondary metabolites, used in the world, whereas mycobacterial species are well known to be the deadliest human pathogens, although a few are environmentally useful. Mycobacterial species also produce secondary metabolites that play a role in pathogenesis. It is a well known fact that genes involved in the synthesis of secondary metabolites form clusters known as biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs). To date, comparative analysis of secondary metabolite BGCs in species belonging to these two genera has not been reported. Among the genes involved in synthesis of secondary metabolites, cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYPs/P450s) play a key role, as these enzymes contribute to the diversity of secondary metabolites owing to their chemo-, stereo- and regio-specific oxidation of substrates. Despite this importance of P450s in the synthesis of secondary metabolites, to date, identification of P450s involved in the synthesis of secondary metabolites in species belonging to these two genera has not been reported. Thus, this study is aimed at addressing these two research gaps by conducting comprehensive comparative analysis of secondary metabolite BGCs and associated P450s in the species belonging to the genera Streptomyces (48 species) and Mycobacterium (60 species).
Genome-wide analysis revealed the presence of a large and diverse number of secondary metabolite BGCs in Streptomyces species compared to mycobacteria species. In total 1 461 secondary metabolite BGCs belonging to 159 types were found in 48 Streptomyces species compared to 898 secondary metabolite BGCs belonging to only 18 types found in 60 mycobacterial species. Among Streptomyces species, S. griseochromogenes has the highest number of secondary metabolite BGCs (49) and Streptomyces sp. 4F has the lowest number of secondary metabolite BGCs (19) in their genomes. Mycobacterium marinum has the highest number of secondary metabolite BGCs (29) and two strains of M. leprae have the lowest number of secondary metabolite BGCs (five each) in their genomes. Quite a big difference was observed with respect to the types of secondary metabolite BGCs between Streptomyces and mycobacterial species. Among 159 types of secondary metabolite BGCs found in Streptomyces species, only 13 types of BGCs contributed 80% to the total percentage of BGCs, suggesting that the secondary metabolites produced by these BGCs were highly important in Streptomyces species’ physiology. The secondary metabolite BGC, terpene, was dominant, followed by siderophores, nonribosomal peptides (Nrps) and Type 1 polyketides (T1pks) in Streptomyces species. Among 18 types of secondary metabolite BGCs identified in mycobacterial species, Nrps was the dominant secondary metabolite BGC, followed by ‘other’, T1pks and T1pks-Nrps. Despite the presence of 15 common types of secondary metabolite BGCs between the genera Streptomyces and Mycobacterium, large differences were observed in terms of the number of BGCs, indicating that the selective enrichment of particular secondary metabolite BGCs in both genera is possibly due to the different lifestyle, as discussed in the subsequent section. Comparative analysis of P450s that are part of secondary metabolite BGCs revealed the presence of a large number of diverse P450s as part of these secondary metabolite BGCs in Streptomyces, compared to Mycobacterium. Not all secondary metabolite BGCs found in Streptomyces and Mycobacterium have P450s. Among 1 461 Streptomyces species, only 554 secondary metabolite BGCs were found to have P450s, whereas in mycobacterial species, among 898 only 204 secondary metabolite BGCs have P450s. Overall, 554 and 204 P450s were found to be part of secondary metabolite BGCs in respectively Streptomyces and mycobacterial species. Among 88 P450 families that are part of different secondary metabolite BGCs, some P450 families are highly dominant in Streptomyces species, indicating their key role in the synthesis of different secondary metabolites. These P450 families were found to be the same that are highly populated in Streptomyces species, with some exceptions. This strongly indicates that these P450 families provide an advantage to Streptomyces species by generating diverse secondary metabolites, thus letting these species thrive in nature. Mycobacterial species’ secondary metabolite BGC P450 profiles are contrasted with Streptomyces species, where the dominant P450 families are not necessarily dominant as part of secondary metabolite BGCs. Ten P450 families, namely CYP51, CYP123, CYP125, CYP130, CYP135, CYP136, CYP138, CYP140, CYP144 and CYP1128, are conserved and highly populated across 60 mycobacterial species. However, none of these P450 families is dominant as part of different secondary metabolite BGCs. The CYP139 P450 family was found to be the dominant family as part of secondary metabolite BGCs. Although eight P450 families, namely CYP124, CYP121, CYP105, CYP125, CYP102, CYP147, CYP136 and CYP161, which are part of secondary metabolite BGCs, were commonly found between the genera Streptomyces and Mycobacterium, the number of P450s in these families was found to be different.
Based on the above data, it is clear that different lifestyles influenced the gene content in Streptomyces and Mycobacterium, hence differences in the number and type of secondary metabolite BGCs and P450s that are associated with secondary metabolite BGCs were observed. The saprophytic and symbiotic lifestyle of Streptomyces resulted in the highest diversity of secondary metabolite BGCs and P450s, thus helping these organisms to generate chemically diverse secondary metabolites to adapt to different ecological niches. For this reason, Streptomyces species have been found to have large and diverse secondary metabolite BGCs and P450s compared to mycobacterial species. Based on the evidence presented in this study, the researcher hereby proposes that lifestyle or ecological niches play a key role in the evolution of secondary metabolite BGCs and associated P450s in species belonging to the genera Streptomyces and Mycobacterium
Exploring Integration Of Information Communications Technology (ICT) In Curriculum Of Pre-Service Teacher Education And Training In South Africa
Get PDFDissertationChanges in technology, the advent of computers, mobile technology and innovations in
telecommunications technology have affected the way people live around the world. Various
sectors such as commerce, medicine, law, education and so on, have been affected by the
changes brought by Information Communications Technology (ICT). Countries across the globe
have positioned education as an apex priority. South Africa, like most countries, participates in
the global ‘Education for All’ movement, as initiated by UNESCO, a movement geared towards
the advancement of social justice. Based on these changes, teacher education and training at
universities should prepare prospective teachers to be able to function within the 21st century
classroom. This means that after qualifying, student teachers should possess knowledge that will
enable them to teach the millennial learners, to teach with technology, and to teach towards the
advancement of quality education and social justice. The purpose of this study is to explore the
integration of ICT in pre-service teacher training at universities in South Africa. The study
investigates the level to which student teachers are exposed to the Technological Pedagogical
Content Knowledge (TPACK) needed by them to deal with the demands of 21st century teaching.
The study used the qualitative research approach using both group and individual interviews as
research methods. The study found that prospective teachers still lack the required knowledge for
them to integrate content, pedagogy and technology. It also found that the present B.Ed
curriculum as prescribed in the revised Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education
Qualifications (MRTEQ) policy document stifles the flexibility of universities in their efforts to
provide student teachers with the required TPACK. Also, the ICT competencies of some
lecturers at universities still need to be improved for them to adequately train student teachers to
integrate ICT in their teaching. This study recommends practical steps that universities can
employ to complement the prescripts of the revised MRTEQ to provide prospective teachers
with the required TPACK
Impact Of Climate Change On Hydrology And Water Resources In The Upper Zambezi River Basin
Get PDFThesisAccording to the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the Southern African region is regarded as one of the most vulnerable regions in Africa. The Zambezi River Basin (ZRB), the largest basin in Southern Africa is characterised by spatial and temporal rainfall variability, and in some cases, scarce water resources. Climate change is likely to affect nearly every aspect of human well-being; from agricultural productivity and energy use to flood control, municipal and industrial water supply to wildlife management. There are few studies focussed on hydrology and climate change at a local catchment scale in the ZRB, therefore, this research sought to investigate the severity of the impacts of climate change on hydrology and water resources for the purposes of evaluation for sustainable planning and management of the resources. The review of water resources linkage to climate variability showed occurrences of floods,droughts,uneven distribution of water resources,rising temperatures and high evapotranspiration rates. The technology of using Climate Forecasting System Reanalysis (CFSR) data to estimate water resources in data scarce regions such as Southern Africa showed results that were satisfactory. Providing Regional Climate Impact Studies (PRECIS) model results proved to be reliable with a sufficient model skill that predicted an increase in rainfall and temperature while predicting a decrease in other areas within the same basin. The results from six downscaled bias-corrected Global Climate Models (GCM) were focussed on 2020-2050.The results under RCP4.5 climate scenario, predicted a seasonal increase in rainfall,runoff and water yield in December, January and February (DJF) while the changes in the rest of the seasons were generally insignificant. The annual rainfall was predicted to decrease by 0.7% while water yield and runoff would increase by 5% and 6%, respectively. The results under RCP8.5 climate scenario predicted seasonal increases of runoff at 211% and rainfall at 35% indicating a strong likelyhood of occurrence of an extreme flood event. Annual statistics show a significant increase of 65%, 40% and 19% in runoff, water yield and rainfall, respectively. The basin under RCP4.5 climate scenario is predicted with insignificant changes with baseline in monthly, seasonal and annual flow regime. The majority of GCMs under RCP8.5 climate scenario indicate 4-8% increase in streamflow while the intra-annual and inter-annual streamflow variability will increase by a considerable margin. There is also a significant increase in seasonal streamflow that ranges between 34 - 134%. The future climate change impact studies need to focus on RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 for 2050-2100 in order to assess and evaluate any possible future impact on hydrology and water resources