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    Carbon Storage in Peatlands within an Ever-changing Environment - Soil Organic Matter Dynamics in the Context of Active Volcanism

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    In the wake of increasing awareness of global warming, peatland conservation and restoration receive impetus by efforts to sequester carbon. Peatlands comprise a significant component of the global carbon cycle as they store up to 30% of global soil carbon. Carbon accumulation in Histosols, the most common organic soils of peatlands, is usually directed by hydrology and vegetation characteristics and the chemical composition of organic carbon. Mineral soil constituents, an important contributor for carbon accumulation and stability in mineral soils, are usually not considered important in Histosols. However, there is a growing body of evidence regarding the importance of mineral material in the volcanic ejecta for the carbon dynamics of peatlands in volcanic regions. Windborne volcanic ejecta certainly affect Histosols in Iceland. The island is one of the most active volcanic places in the world, and amongst the most dynamic of aeolian environments due to strong winds and a globally unmatched extent of volcaniclastic deserts. The aim of this PhD thesis was to investigate carbon dynamics in Icelandic Histosols under the varying impact of windborne mineral material. The research provides evidence for the co-importance of vegetation and carbon characteristics, and mineral soil constituents, for carbon dynamics in Icelandic peatlands. Particularly interesting is the positive relationship between minerals like allophane and ferrihydrite and certain carbon groups as well as shifts in carbon structure and stability around thick tephra deposits. This should be taken into consideration in projections of the effects of pressure such as by climate change and drainage on carbon cycling within peatland ecosystems.Á undanförnum árum hefur vitund almennings um loftslagshlýnun aukist. Í tengslum við það hefur verndun og endurheimt mýra til þess að auka bindingu kolefnis notið vaxandi meðbyrs. Mýrar, eða nánar tiltekið mómýrar, geyma allt að 30% kolefnis jarðvegs á heimsvísu og eru því mikilvægur hlekkur í kolefnishringrás. Helstu áhrifaþættir kolefnisuppsöfnunar í mójörð (lífrænn jarðvegur mómýra) eru að jafnaði vatnsbúskapur, gróðurfarseinkenni og efnasamsetning kolefnis. Steinefni sem eru mikilvægir þættir uppsöfnunar og stöðugleika kolefnis í steinefnajarðvegi, eru venjulega ekki talin móta bindingu kolefnis í mójörð. Nýlegar rannsóknir benda þó til þess að steinefni í formi gjósku og annarra gosefna hafi áhrif á ferli kolefnis í mómýrum á eldvirkum svæðum. Vindborin gosefni hafa því áhrif á mójörð á Íslandi enda er eldvirkni þar með því mesta sem gerist í heiminum. Auk þess eru á landinu óvenju mikil foksvæði þar sem saman fer samspil sterkra vinda og óvenju mikilla auðna sem gjarnan eru þakin fokefnum af eldfjallauppruna. Markmið þessa doktorsverkefnis var að rannsaka ferli kolefnis í íslenskri mójörð undir mismiklum áhrifum vindborinna steinefna. Niðurstöður rannsóknarinnar benda sterklega til þess að samspil af gróðurfarseinkennum, efnasamsetningu kolefnis og steinefnum í jarðvegi móti ferli kolefnis í íslenskum mómýrum. Jákvæð fylgni milli steinefna á borð við allófan og ferrihýdrít og ákveðinna hópa kolefnis er sérstaklega athyglisverð. Einnig eiga sér stað áberandi breytingar á efnasamsetningu og stöðugleika kolefnis samhliða því að þykk gjóskulög leggjast yfir mómýrar. Mikilvægt er að taka tillit til áhrifa steinefna á ferli kolefnis í mómýrum á eldvirkum svæðum þegar spáð er fyrir um afleiðingar umhverfisbreytinga á borð við loftslagsbreytingar og framræslu á hringrás kolefnis í þessum vistkerfum.Icelandic Research Fund of the Icelandic Centre (grants nos. 184778-051 and 141842-051) The Landsvirkjun Energy Research Fund (grants nos. DOK-06-2017, NÝR-08-2018 and NÝR-33-2019) The University of Iceland Research Fund The Memory Fund of Aðalsteinn Kristjánsson The Research Fund of the Icelandic Road Authorities The Nature Conservation Fund of Pálmi Jónsson Erasmus

    Liquefaction Assessment of a Loose Silty Sand Site in the 2008 Mw 6.3 Ölfus Earthquake

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    Seismicity in Iceland is related to the Mid-Atlantic plate boundary and primarily consolidated in two complex fracture zones. Liquefaction was observed after the Mw 6.3 Ölfus earthquake in 2008 at the site Arnarbaeli. The site consists of a thick silty sand stratum on the banks of the estuary of the river Ölfusa, and it is located less than 10 km from the earthquake epicentre. Based on nearby time history registrations, the estimated acceleration at the site was 0.6 - 0.7g. Using a simplified method, the safety factor against liquefaction based on the equivalent linear (EL) approach has been estimated. The analysis is built on in-situ field test data (i.e., MASW, and SPT). The analysis reveals the liquefaction depth, 4.4 m. It is shown that not only the current procedure is capable of predicting the occurrence of liquefaction, but also the safety factor which is in good agreement with the observed surface evidence of liquefaction at the site.This work was supported by the Icelandic Research Fund (Rannis), Grants number: 206793-052 and 218149-051.Peer Reviewe

    Cyclodextrins as enabling excipients in ophthalmic drug delivery

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    Sýklódextrín eru hjálparefni sem notuð eru lyfjaform svo sem vatnslausnir (t.d. stungulyf) og föst lyfjaform (t.d. töflur), til að auka leysanleika, stöðugleika og aðgengi lyfjanna. Í þessu verkefni var notkun sýklódextrína sem hjálparefni í augndropum rannsökuð. Rannsakað var hvernig sýklódextrín hafa áhrif á eðlisefnafræðilega eiginleika (þ.e. leysanleika og stöðugleika) lyfja og hvernig þau auka frásog lyfja í gegnum lífrænar himnur. Einnig voru rannsökuð áhrif sýklódextrína á frumur augans, svo sem áhrif þeirra á sjónhimnu augans. Aðgengi lyfs sem gefið er á yfirborð augans er oftast aðeins 3 til 5%, það er aðeins 3 til 5% af lyfinu frásogast inn í augað. Helstu ástæður lélegs aðgengis augnlyfja frá yfirborði augans er takmarkað frásog þeirra í gegnum lífrænar himnur, svo sem í gegnum hornhimnuna. Flest lyf eru einnig fitusækin og hafa því mörg hver takmarkaðan leysanleika í vatni. Þau leysast illa upp í augndropum, sem oftast eru vatnslausnir lyfja, og tárahimnunni sem hylur yfirborð augans. Önnur stór áskorun er efnafræðilegur óstöðugleiki margra lyfja í vatnslausnum sem takmarkar geymsluþol augndropa. Hægt að nota sýklódextrín til að auga bæði stöðugleika og leysni lyfja. Í vatnslausnum mynda sýklódextrín fléttur (þ.e. komplexa) með fitusæknum lyfjum. Fitusæknar sameindir, eða fitusæknir hlutar sameindanna, setjast í op í miðju sýklódextrínsameindanna sem þá verja lyfin fyrir utanaðkomandi áhrifum í lausninni. Sýklódextrín geta einnig aukið aðgengi lyfjanna að lífrænum himnum og þar með aðgengi þeirra inn í augað. Að lokum hafa nýlegar rannsóknir sýnt að sýklódextrín geta myndað fléttur með ýmsum lífrænum efnasamböndum eins og kólesteróli. Því er ekki ósennilegt að hægt verði að nota sýklódextrín við meðhöndlun á sjónhimnusjúkdómum, eins og Stargardtsjúkdómi og slagæðastíflu í sjónhimnu. Rannsóknir á eiturverkunum sýklódextrína á sjónhimnu eru þó takmarkaðar. Áhrif ýmissa sýklódextrína á leysanleika og stöðugleika takrólímus og díflúprednats í vatni voru rannsökuð. Áhrifum sýrustigs (pH), sýklódextrína og fjölliða á niðurbrotsferla og niðurbrotshraða lyfjanna voru rannsökuð með vökvagreini (HPLC) og massagreini (MS). Myndun flétta lyfja og sýklódextrín var könnuð með ýmsum aðferðum svo sem NMR, DSC og FTIR. Áhrif sýklódextrína á flæði lyfja í gegnum himnur voru rannsökuð. Að lokum voru áhrif 2-hýdroxýprópýl-ȕ-sýklódextríns +3ȕ&' RJ PHWêO-ȕ-sýklódextríns 50ȕ&' á frumur sjónhimna úr músum rannsökuð. Rannsóknir á niðurbrotshraða sýndu að takrólímus hefur hámarks stöðugleika í vatnslausn við pH á milli 4 og 6, á meðan díflúprednat er stöðugast við pH um 5. Niðurbrotið beggja lyfjanna eykst verulega ef pH-ið fer yfir 6. MS rannsóknir sýndu að vatnsrof var aðalorsök niðurbrots takrólímus í +3ȕ&'YDWQVODXVQXP Leysanleikarannsóknir sýndu Dèȕ-VêNOyGH[WUtQ ȕ&' og afleiður þess mynda vatnsleysanlegar fléttur með takrólímusi og eru bestu sýklódextrínin til að auka leysanleika lyfsins í vatni, en Ȗ-sýklódextrín (Ȗ&') og afleiður þess voru bestar fyrir díflúprednat. Ennfremur sýndu stöðugleikarannsóknir með sýklódextrínum og mismunandi fjölliðum að stöðugleiki takrólímus í vatni jókst með blöndu +3ȕ&' RJ W\OR[DSóli. Rannsóknir á díflúprednati gáfu svipaðar niðurstöður þar sem blanda af 2- hýdroxýprópýl-Ȗ-sýklódextríni (+3Ȗ&') og póloxamer 407 reyndist best. Þá voru einkenni flétta díflúprednats og +3Ȗ&' rannsökuð á bæði föstu formi og í lausn, það er díflúprednat +3Ȗ&' fléttu og díflúprednat/HPȖ&' Sóloxamer fléttu. NanoSight var notað til að mæla myndun díflúprednat +3Ȗ&' nanóagna og díflúprednat +3Ȗ&' Sóloxamer nanóagna, stærð þeirra og stærðardreifingu sem hlutfall af styrk póloxamers. Niðurstöðurnar voru síðan staðfestar með rafeindasmásjárrannsóknum (TEM). Eiginleikar fléttanna á föstu formi voru rannsakaðar með DSC og FTIR. Rannsóknir á flæði hýdrókortisóns í gegnum himnur sýndu að styrkur mismunandi leysanleika aukandi efna (þ.e. +3ȕ&' HWDQyOs og natríumlárýlsúlfats) hafði markverð áhrif á flæði hýdrókortisóns í gegnum himnur. Áhrifin voru tengd varmafræðilegu ástandi lyfsins í vatnslausninni. Rannsóknir á eituráhrifum VêQGXDè50ȕ&' hafði meiri eituráhrif en +3ȕ&' VHPVMyQKLPQDQþoldi í allt að 10 mM +3ȕ&' styrk. Auk þess sýndu rannsóknir sem gerðar voru á flúrljómandi afleiðum sömu sýklódextrína að bæði 50ȕ&' og +3ȕ&' JHWD IDULè GM~SW LQQ t sjónhimnuna. Þótt Dè+3ȕ&'KDILreynst besta sýklódextrínið fyrir takrólímus og aukið bæði leysanleika þess og stöðugleika, var aukningin ekki nægjanleg til að hægt væri að mynda takrólímus augndropa. Leysaleiki díflúprednats í vatnslausnum sem innihéldu +3Ȗ&' nægði til að mynda augndropa sem innihalda 0,1% díflúprednat, sem er tvöfalt meira magn en í þeim díflúprednat augndropum sem nú eru á markaði. Frekari rannsóknir þarf þó að gera til að fullhanna augndropanaCyclodextrins (CDs) have been widely used as pharmaceutical excipients for formulation purposes for different drug delivery systems. Recent developments have explored their use in ophthalmic drug delivery to overcome the challenges faced due to the anatomical and physiological barriers of the eye. Other big challenges in the ocular delivery are the poor aqueous solubility and chemical instability of many drugs in aqueous solutions and the short retention time. As we know, CDs can be used to improve the stability and solubility of hydrophobic drugs in aqueous CD solutions through the formation of drug/CD complexes. The lipophilic molecules of parts of larger drugs can enter the CD cavity and hence can be protected from external factors in the solution. Not only this but the use of CDs as solubilisers has helped in the permeation properties of different hydrophobic drugs. In addition to this, recent studies have shown that CDs are able to form complexes with a variety of biomolecules, such as cholesterol. This has subsequently paved the way for the possibility of using CDs in retinal diseases, such as Stargardt disease and retinal artery occlusion, where CDs could absorb cholesterol pumps, but the studies on the retinal toxicity of CDs are limited. This study aimed to explore the applicability of CDs in ophthalmic delivery as solubilisers/stabilisers for various hydrophobic drugs (tacrolimus and difluprednate) to develop a vehicle for aqueous eye drops, their concentration effect on important parameters for formulation like permeation, and to examine the retinal toxicity of different CDs and their localisation within retinal tissues. Phase-solubility and kinetics studies were performed in the presence of different CDs at different pH values for tacrolimus and difluprednate. A mass spectrometric (MS) study was also done to elucidate the degradation mechanism of the tacrolimus in an aqueous CD solution. Furthermore, stabilisation studies were done with CD and different polymers to further improve the stability of these drugs. After this, the characterisations of drug/CD complexes were done using techniques like NMR, DSC, and FTIR. Permeation studies were done with hydrocortisone to study the effect of different solubiliser concentrations on the permeation. Finally, cytotoxicity studies with 2- hydroxypropyl-ȕ&' +3ȕ&' DQG UDQGRPO\ PHWK\ODWHG ȕ-cyclodextrin 50ȕ&' ZHUH GRQH XVLQJ ZLOG-type mouse retinal explants, the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay, and fluorescence microscopy. Kinetics studies showed that tacrolimus has a maximum stability between pH 4 and 6 while difluprednate has one at around pH 5. The degradation is vigorous in basic conditions after pH 6 for both drugs. The MS studies showed that hydrolysis was the main cause of tacrolimus degradation in aqueous +3ȕCD solutions. Phase-solubility studies revealed that ɴCD and its derivatives were good solubilisers for tacrolimus, while ɶCD and its derivatives for difluprednate. Furthermore, stability studies with CD and different polymers showed that the stability of tacrolimus was improved with the combination of HPɴCD and tyloxapol. But still, tacrolimus degradation was around more than 30% with 5% HPɴCD and 2% tyloxapol. A similar trend was observed in the case of difluprednate where the drug degradation was less than 1% in the combination system with 15% HPɶCD and 4% poloxamer 407. Studies with tacrolimus were not continued due to the unsatisfactory stability results. After this, the characterisations of drug/CD complex in solid- and solution-states were done in binary (difluprednate/HPɶCD) and ternary (difluprednate/HPɶCD/poloxamer) systems. NanoSight was used to measure the drug/CD and drug/CD/polymer aggregates with observed increasing micelles aggregate size with an increasing poloxamer concentration. This was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) studies. The solid-state characterisation of these binary and ternary complexes done by using DSC and FTIR showed the disappearance of the characteristic peaks confirming the presence of an inclusion complex in our system. Permeation studies showed that the concentration of different solubilisers (HPɴCD, ethanol, and sodium lauryl sulfate; SLS) had a pronounced effect on the permeation of hydrocortisone across different membrane barriers. This was shown by the flux profiles where we observed decreasing flux values when the concentration of HPɴCD and ethanol was increased/decreased from the concentration when hydrocortisone was in a saturated solution. The permeation of hydrocortisone in SLS system revealed a different profile with decreasing flux over increasing SLS concentration. Cytotoxicity studies showed that RMɴCD was more toxic to retinal explants when compared to HPɴCD, which the retina can safely tolerate at levels as high as 10 mM. Additionally, studies conducted with fluorescent forms of the same CDs showed that both CDs can penetrate deep into the inner nuclear layer of the retina, with some uptake by Müller cells. 7R FRQFOXGH HYHQ WKRXJK +3ȕ&' ZDV D EHWWHU VROXELOLVHU VWDELOLVHU IRU tacrolimus among the CDs tested, tacrolimus was not adequately chemically stable to be formulated as aqueous eye drops. In the case of difluprednate, it ZDVSRVVLEOHWRVROXELOLVH GLIOXSUHGQDWHLQDQDTXHRXV+3Ȗ&'VROXWLRQ which is twice as much as the commercially available eye drops, and stabilise vii in an aqueous solution using a combination of CD and polymer. However, in order to formulate into eye drops, further studies with different excipients and different parameters are needed. In addition to this, the solubiliser concentration does play a critical role in the permeation capability of the drug molecule across the barrier membrane which is, in turn, related to the WKHUPRG\QDPLFDFWLYLW\RIWKHGUXJPROHFXOH /DVWO\ +3ȕ&'ZDVIRXQGWREHDVDIHURSWLRQWKDQ50ȕ&D for retinal drug delivery and may advance the use of CDs in the development of drugs in this field. Hopefully, these obtained results could be beneficial in further exploration of CDs in various fields of ophthalmic drug delivery either as drug carriers or the drug itself.The project was funded by the European Commission for Research through Marie Curie Initial Training Network (transMed), Grant agreement No. 765441

    Statistical Modelling of Seismmic Vulnerability of Buildings for South Iceland considering the Spatial Correlation of Ground Motion Intenisty

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    An Mw6.30 earthquake occurred in south Iceland in May 2008. The epicentre and fault rupture occurred close to small villages and farms, affecting over 5000 residential buildings. Despite significant damage, no residential buildings collapsed. It is desirable to know the ground motion intensity at various locations in order to develop an empirical vulnerability model; however, ground-motion observations are only available for a limited range of sites. Groun motion Prediction Equations (GMPEs) are commonly used to predict desired ground motion intensity measures (IM) at a given site. There are several interpolation methods available to improve the predictions if local ground motion data for the study event is available. Since IMs or their logarithms are normally distributed, spatially correlated, and correlated with each other at a given location, the conditional multivariate normal (MVN) distribution can be used for this purpose. This paper uses the MVN-based approach to perform PGA interpolation using local GMPE. We specifically present: 1- spatially correlated PGAs using MVN formulation and 2- an advance empirical vulnerability model based on zeroinflated beta regression calibrated for five building typologies in south Iceland.This work was partly financed by the SERICE project funded by a Grant of Excellence from the Icelandic Centre for Research (RANNIS), (#218149-051). The second author was supported by a Postdoctoral grant (#218255-051) from the Icelandic Research Fund and Horizon 2020 TURNkey project.Peer Reviewe

    Speed-Up of Machine Learning for Sound Localization via High-Performance Computing

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    Post-print (lokaútgáfa höfunda).Sound localization is the ability of humans to determine the source direction of sounds that they hear. Emulating this capability in virtual environments can have various societally relevant applications enabling more realistic virtual acoustics. We use a variety of artificial intelligence methods, such as machine learning via an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model, to emulate human sound localization abilities. This paper addresses the particular challenge that the training and optimization of these models is very computationally-intensive when working with audio signal datasets. It describes the successful porting of our novel ANN model code for sound localization from limiting serial CPU-based systems to powerful, cutting-edge High-Performance Computing (HPC) resources to obtain significant speed-ups of the training and optimization process. Selected details of the code refactoring and HPC porting are described, such as adapting hyperparameter optimization algorithms to efficiently use the available HPC resources and replacing third-party libraries responsible for audio signal analysis and linear algebra. This study demonstrates that using innovative HPC systems at the Jülich Supercomputing Centre, equipped with high-tech Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) resources and based on the Modular Supercomputing Architecture, enables significant speed-ups and reduces the time-to-solution for sound localization from three days to three hours per ANN model.Peer Reviewe

    N-Alkyl, N-Acyl, and Triazolyl Derivatives of Chitosan: Synthesis and Antibacterial Properties

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    Kítósan er líffjölliða sem virk gegn örverum og hefur jafnframt marga aðra ákjósanlega eiginleika eins og lífsamræmanleika og lífniðurbrotshæfni jafnframt því að vera óeitruð. Kítósan og afleiður þess hafa mikið verið rannsakaðar sem bakteríudrepandi efni en þrátt fyrir það er þekking á sambandi byggingar og virkni takmörkuð. Í byrjun miðaði doktorsverkefnið að þvi að skilgreina samband byggingar og virkni fyrir nokkar vel þekktar afleiður kítósans. Í framhaldinu voru nýjar smellefnafræðiaðferðir fyrir smíðið kítosanafleiða og konjúgata þróaðar og notaðar til að smíða nýja gerð fjölliða sem einnig voru rannsakaðar og samband byggingar og virkni ákvarðað. Fyrsti hluti rannsóknarinnar beindist að því að skilgreina vel samband byggingar og bakteríudrepandi virkni fyrir vel þekktar og mikið notaðar kítósanafleiður og flokka þær eftir notagildi. Katjónískar (TACin, TMCNH2/TM, TMCTM/DM og HTCC), anjónísk (CMC) og óhlaðnar (HPC og TGC) afleiður voru smíðaðar út frá kítósan og TBDMS-kítósan byrjunarefnum. Allar þessar afleiður voru efnagreindar með 1H NMR og FT-IR til að ákvarða byggingu og með gelsúluskiljun (GPC) til að ákvarða mólþunga. Kítósanafleiðurnar voru smíðaðar með mismunandi hlutföllum af hvarfefnum þannig að myndefnin voru með setni (DS) frá 0,02 til 1,1. Virkni geng S. aureus, E. coli, og P. aeruginosa var ákörðuð við pH 7,2 og 5,5. Katjónísku afleiðurnar voru virkastar gegn þessum bakteríum sérstaklega við pH 7,2. Samband mill virkni og setni (DS) var líka jákvætt fyrir TACin, TMCNH2/TM, og TMCTM/DM. HPC, sem var með óhlaðinn sethóp, var minna virkt og í því tilviki var neikvætt samband milli virkni og setni. CMC, sem var með anjónískan sethóp, var óvirkt gegn bakteríunum. Núorðið er æ algengara að nota kopar hvataða azíð-alkýn-hringálagningar (CuAAC) smellefnafræði til að smíða ýmiskonar lífefnakonjúgöt, þar með talið kítósan-konjúgöt. Annar hluti doktorsverkefnisins miðaði að því að hanna og smíða nýja gerð kítósanafleiða (kítótríazólan) þar sem öllum C-2 fyrstu gráðu amínóhópunum hefur verið umbreytt í 1,2,3-tríazól hópa. Amínóhópunum í kítósani var fyrst umbreytt í azíð sem voru svo hvörfuð við endastöðu-alkýn í viðurvist Cu (II) hvata og natríum askorbats. Hlutfall umbreytingar azíðs í 1,2,3- tríazól var meira en 90%. Virkni gegn bakteríunum S. aureus og E. coli var mæld við pH 7.2. Tvö katjónísk kítótríazólan efni reyndust talsvert virk (lægsta MIC = 64 µg/mL) en anjónísk kítotríazólan efni voru ekki virk gegn bakteríum. Þessi smellefnafræðiaðferð var líka notuð til að umbreyta fyrstu gráðu amínóhópum í hlutsetnum algengum kítósanafleiðum (TMC, TAC, HTC, HPC, and CMC) í tríazól. Virkni þessara blönduðu kítótríazólanefna gegn S. aureus, E. faecalis, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa við pH 7,2 var einnig mæld. Katjónísk kítótríazólanefnin og blönduð kítótríazólanefnin voru virk gegn bakteríunum, öll nema blönduð kítótríazólan afleidd af CMC, sem skorti virkni. CuAAC hvarfið var einnig notað til að smíða níu vatnsleysanleg kítótríazólanefni með mismunandi katjóníska eða basíska hópa. Metýlimidazól-któtrízólan afleiðan var virkust (lægsta MIC = 256 µg/mL) gegn bakteríunum. Lokahluti rannsóknarinar hafði það markmið að nota smellefnafræðiaðferðina til að tengja örverudrepandi peptíð við kítósan. CRAMP-18 peptíð sem innhélt endastæðan alkýn hóp var smíðað. Kítósan-azíð og HPC-azíð voru smíðuð með lága setni azíðhópa, og smellefnafræðiaðferðin notuð til að tengja CRAMP-18 peptíðið við fjölliðuna. Þessi konjúgöt voru mun virkari geng gram-neikvæðum bakteríum en gegn gram-jákvæðum bakteríum.Chitosan is a biopolymer with significant antimicrobial activity and many attractive properties such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and non-toxicity. Chitosan and its derivatives have been widely studied as promising new antibacterial agents, but the relationship between structure and activity is still poorly understood. The Ph.D. project first sought to map the structureantibacterial activity relationship for common and well-known chitosan derivatives. New “click chemistry” based procedures for the synthesis of derivatives and conjugates were then developed, and these novel polymeric compounds were used for further structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies. The first part of the research focused on establishing the SAR for some of the more widely used chitosan derivatives and trying to rank them according to activity and utility. Cationic trimethylated (TACin, TMCNH2/TM, TMCTM/DM, and HTCC), anionic (CMC) neutral (HPC), and TGC chitosans were synthesized using chitosan and TBDMS chitosan as precursors. All these derivatives are characterized by 1H NMR, FT-IR to determine the structure, and gel permeation chromatography (GPC) to determine the molecular weight. The chitosan derivatives were synthesized with different reagent ratios to give products with degree substitution (DS) ranging from 0.02 to 1.1. Most of these derivatives displayed antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa at pH 7.2 and 5.5. Cationic derivatives were most active against these bacteria, especially at pH 7.2. The relationship with DS was also positive for TACin, TMCNH2/TM, and TMCTM/DM. HPC, which has a neutral substituent, was less active and had a negative relationship with DS. CMC, which has an anionic substituent, was inactive against the bacteria. Nowadays, it is increasingly common to use copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) “click chemistry” to prepare bioconjugates, including chitosan derivatives and conjugates. The second part of the thesis work focused on designing and synthesizing a new class of chitosan derivatives where all C-2 primary amino groups have been converted to aromatic 1,2,3-triazoles (Chitotriazolan). The chitosan amines were converted to azides and reacted with terminal alkynes in the presence of Cu (II) catalyst and sodium ascorbate. The conversion of the azide to 1,2,3-triazole was more than 90%. The antibacterial activity was evaluated against S. aureus and E. coli at pH 7.2. Two cationic chitotriazolans exhibited (lowest MIC = 64 µg/mL) antibacterial activity, whereas the anionic chitotriazolans were inactive. The click chemistry strategies were used to convert primary amino groups of partially substituted common chitosan derivatives (TMC, TAC, HTC, HPC, and CMC) to triazole and thus obtain mixed chitotriazolans. The antibacterial activity was evaluated against S. aureus, E. faecalis, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa at pH 7.2. The cationic chitotriazolans and mixed chitoriazolans were active against bacteria, except chitotriazolan derived from CMC, which lacked activity. In addition to preparing water-soluble chitosan derivatives, the CuAAC reaction was further used to synthesize nine chitotriazolans with various quaternary and basic protonable functional groups. These chitotriazolan derivatives were soluble in water. The methylimidazole-chitotriazolan derivative showed significant activity (lowest MIC = 256 µg/mL) against all bacteria and was generally the most active derivative. The final part of the research for the thesis focused on the conjugation of antimicrobial peptides onto the chitosan backbone using the click chemistry procedure. The CRAMP-18 peptide was synthesized with a terminal alkyne group. Chitosan azide and HPC azide were prepared with a low degree of azidation, and a click reaction was performed with the modified CRAMP-18 peptide. The antimicrobial peptide chitosan conjugates were more active against gram-negative bacteria, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa than gram-positive bacteria

    Pottar, pípur og plattar : Fornleifafræði neyslu á 17. og 18. öld á Íslandi

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    Í Evrópu og Norður-Ameríku er árnýöld, og sérstaklega 17. og 18. öld, séð sem upphaf neyslubyltingarinnar (e. the consumer revolution), neytendasamfélags (e. consumer society) og umskipta frá varning úr sjálfsþurftarbúskap til neysluvarnings frá verslun. Á Íslandi er þetta tímabil hins vegar oft séð sem tími efnhagslegrar stöðnunar og almennrar fátæktar, hluti „niðurlægingartímabils“ milli dýrðar landnáms- og þjóðveldisalda og ríkidæmis hins sjálfstæða Íslands eftir lok seinni heimstyrjaldar. Þessi sýn er á skjön við algenga evrópska sýn á þetta tímabil og þessi ritgerð mun kanna togstreituna milli hinnar íslensku hugmyndar um „niðurlægingartímabilið“ og hinnar hnattrænu hugmyndar um efnahagslegan vöxt og neyslubyltingu, og hvor sýn nær betur utan um aðstæður á Íslandi á árnýöld. Þetta mun vera gert með fornleifafræðilegum rannsóknum, sem kanna hvort 17. og 18. aldar Ísland getur talist neyslusamfélag eða á leið að verða slíkt samfélag. Markmiðið er að einblína á tvo flokka efnismenningar sem höfðu tengsl við neysluvarning; þ.e. tóbakspípur úr leir og leirker. Hingað til hafa aðeins örfáar rannsóknir á krítarpípum og leirkerjum farið fram á Íslandi og þær rannsóknir sem hafa verið gerðar hafa einbeitt sér að verslunar tengslum með rannsóknum á uppruna þessara gripa og nýtingu þeirra til tímasetninga. Aðalmarkmið þessarar ritgerðar er, ólíkt fyrri rannsóknum, að kanna tilvist og fjölda þessara gripa í fornleifafræðilegu samhengi á 17. og 18. aldar Íslandi, athuga hvernig og hvenær þeir koma inn í íslenska fundaflóru og hvernig þeir dreifast eftir félagslegri og efnahagslegri stöðu og aðgang að marköðum. Þau neyslumynstur (e. consumption profiles) sem verða til úr þessum rannsóknum verða borin saman við neyslumynstur frá Norðvestur Evrópu. Þessi mynstur verða einnig nýtt til að nálgast skilning á þýðingu og nýtingu lúxusvarnings á Íslandi og hvort, og að hvaða leiti, hugtökin neyslubyltingin og neyslusamfélag eru eiga rétt á sér á þessum tíma á Íslandi eða hvort það eru aðrar leiðir til að skilja slíka neyslu.In Europe and North America, the Early Modern Period – or more specifically the 17th and 18th centuries – are characterised as seeing the consumer revolution, the rise of consumer society and consumer goods replacing a more subsistence-based approach. In Iceland, however, that same period has been seen as a time of economic stagnation and material impoverishment, a part of a ‘Dark Age’ between the glory of the Icelandic Commonwealth and Settlement Periods and the affluence of an independent post-Second World War Iceland. This view places Iceland at odds with much of Europe and this thesis will explore the tension between these views of a local ‘Dark Age’ trajectory and the global trajectory of economic growth and consumer revolution, questioning whether either view properly captures the specific conditions of Iceland in the Early Modern Period. This will be achieved through the study of archaeological data, addressing issues of whether Iceland in the 17th and 18th centuries can be considered to have been or become a consumer society. The objective is to focus on two categories of material culture which had a connection to consumer goods; clay tobacco pipes and pottery. Previously, only a small handful of studies have been done on the subjects of pipes and pottery in Iceland but these have been primarily focused on revealing trade relations in the form of provenancing and on the objects as markers for dating. The primary goal of this thesis, however, is to explore the relative presence and frequency of these goods in archaeological assemblages in Iceland from the 17th and 18th centuries, examine how and when they enter Icelandic assemblages, and how they spread through Icelandic society by socio-economic standing and market acces. These consumption profiles will be compared and contrasted to consumption profiles from sites in north-western Europe. These patterns will also be used in seeking to understand the local meanings and uses of these luxury goods in Iceland and in what ways the notions of a consumer revolution or consumer society has relevance or whether there are other ways to view such consumption.Ranní

    Hver eru taugalífeðlisfræðigáhrif fyrir og eftir TMS meðferð hvað raflífeðlisfræðilegra breytur varða hjá sjúklingum með geðklofa og heyrnartals ofskynjanir?

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    Background: Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (RTMS) has been suggested as a possible therapeutic alternative for patients with schizophrenia (SCZ) and treatment-resistant auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH). The aim of the studies presented here was to investigate how RTMS affects clinical symptoms, electroencephalographic responses, and brain functional networks. We suspected improvement of symptoms accompanied by changes in EEG activity, event-related potentials, and sensory gating. Subjects and methods: Ten patients with schizophrenia (mean age 32.4, SD = 6.85, 7m, 3f) and six healthy controls (mean age 30.3, SD = 7.5, 4m, 2f) participated in this study. Nine patients were on antipsychotic medication. The patients were randomly selected into two groups, the treatment group (TG) and the control group (CG). The active low-frequency 1Hz RTMS was delivered in ten daily sessions of 900 pulses at two different EEG locations: T3-P3 (TG) and Cz (CG). Clinical symptoms were investigated with psychometric scales like Quality of Life (QoL), Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS), and Psychotic Symptom Rating Scale with Auditory Hallucinations Subscale (PSYRATS AHS). The neurophysiological tests employed were cortical and cutaneous silent period, mid-latency auditory evoked potentials (P50, N100, P200) using a paired click paradigm, P300 obtained with an auditory oddball paradigm, and the cognitively driven auditory-motor task (AMT). Time, frequency domains, and functional network organization of different neurophysiological markers were analyzed. P300 oscillatory activity was analyzed with EEG source connectivity (e.g., participation coefficient) and for the auditory-motor task-induced oscillations, we used network integration parameters of graph theory (i.e., characteristic path length - CPL and small worldness - SW). The patient's results obtained after the treatment (T2) were compared with data obtained at baseline condition (T1) and with data from the third group of healthy controls (HC). Results: There were no significant changes between TG and CG on QoL, DASS, and PSYRATS AHS scores or neurophysiological data after the RTMS treatment. We also calculated pre-post RTMS changes for all patients. N100 showed the most marked changes after RTMS in left temporoparietal region, from -0.57 μV (SD 0.97) to -2.39 μV (SD 1.59), (p = 0.006, η2 = 0.346) and in medial posterior region (p = 0.038, η2 = 0.218) suggesting a modulation of this marker over both stimulation sites. After RTMS, N100-P300 voltage increased for six patients, two in TG and four in CG, but also decreased in patients from TG who showed the best clinical outcome. The EEG power spectral density (PSD) during the auditory oddball paradigm increased in T2, mainly for the alpha band and beta band globally, for six subjects, two in TG and four in CG. The connectivity results for the frequent stimuli of the auditory oddball paradigm showed increased network segregation during T2 for the beta band, in seven patients, four in CG, and three in TG. The study revealed that patients with schizophrenia exhibit higher gamma PSD in a period between two auditory commands of AMT, compared to HC, which was modified by RTMS without being significant. The change was visible, locally, over the left temporoparietal region, when the task was done with the non-dominant hand, showing that during this condition, gamma synchronization is a marker of “neural effort” and workload during the working memory-related time and not during the auditory or motor cortical activation. Graph theory analyzed for low-gamma EEG activity elicited in between the auditory stimuli, an epoch of the auditory-motor task we called “non-cortical activation” and which is related to the working memory, showed a decreased SW index after RTMS when the task was performed with the non-dominant hand. This SW effect observed in the patients was similar to that of the HC group. Kendall's tau-b correlation showed a strong, negative correlation between the SW index of low-gamma phase oscillations and PSYRATS AHS scores in T1, which was statistically significant (τb = −0.788, p = 0.032). After RTMS (T2) the correlation was strongly positive (τb = 0.733, p = 0.039). Discussion: The sample size of this study was small to achieve TG-CG statistical significance (e.g., PSYRATS AHS pre-calculated N was 16). Individual data showed controversial results, sometimes with the improvement of AVH severity and neurophysiological data in patients treated at the Cz EEG location. N100 from the paired click paradigm showed the most marked changes at the left temporoparietal region. P300 was performed with a passive auditory oddball paradigm by “automatic” discrimination between two tones without asking the subject to move the finger or count the target stimuli. The findings we obtained with P300 amplitude, which in most cases decreased after RTMS, might be in direct relation to a habituation effect, which is seen in healthy subjects (Polich, 1989). Conclusion: Based on the patient ́s clinical evaluations and all the neurophysiological measurements presented in the studies of this thesis we cannot affirm that left temporoparietal (T3-P3) RTMS is more effective than vertex (Cz) RTMS in patients with schizophrenia and auditory verbal hallucinations. Some interesting neurophysiological observations were made, particularly changes of N100 amplitude at the left temporoparietal region and low gamma activity during the period in between auditory commands of a cognitively driven task. N100 amplitude measured from a paired click paradigm and low gamma activity measured in-between auditory stimuli of AMT performed with the non-dominant hand might be of interest to assess the neuromodulatory aftereffects of RTMS in patients with SCZ and AVH. The small-world network of low gamma activity showed a significant main effect of the condition (AMT and resting state) for HC and SCZ-T2 suggesting that RTMS might have influenced the network by restoring the SW index. Further, studies with a multimodal neurophysiological approach are necessary to assess RTMS effectiveness for patients with SCZ and AVH.Bakgrunnur: Undanfarin ár hefur raðsegulörvun (RTMS) verið sífellt meira notuð sem meðferðarúrræði fyrir sjúklinga með geðklofa (SCZ) og meðferðarónæmar heyrnar- og talofskynjanir (AVH). Markmið rannsóknanna sem kynntar eru hér var að kanna hvernig RTMS hefur áhrif á klínísk einkenni, raflífeðlisfræðilega svörun og starfsemi heilans. Áætlað var að jákvæðar taugalífeðlisfræðilegar breytingar myndu sjást samfara bættum klínískum einkennum í kjölfar meðferðar. Aðferðir: Tíu sjúklingar með geðklofa (meðalaldur 32,4, SD = 6,85, 7 kk, 3 kvk) og sex heilbrigðir einstaklingar (meðalaldur 30,3, SD = 7,5, 4 kk, 2 kvk) tóku þátt í þessari rannsókn. Níu af tíu sjúklingum voru á geðrofslyfjum. Sjúklingarnir voru valdir af handahófi í tvo hópa, meðferðarhóp (TG) og viðmiðunarhóp (CG). Hamlandi, lágtíðni (1Hz) RTMS var veitt í tíu daglegum lotum (900 púlsar í hvert skipti) á tveimur mismunandi heilaritasstöðum: T3-P3 (TG) og Cz (CG). Klínísk einkenni voru metin með eftirfarandi sálfræðilegum kvörðum: Quality of Life (QoL), Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS), og Psychotic Symptom Rating Scale with Auditory Hallucinations Subscale (PSYRATS AHS). Taugalífeðlisfræðilegu prófin sem notuð voru könnuðu; 1) þögla tímabil heila og mænu, og 2) Heyrnar-hrifrit (early and mid-latency ERPs), þar sem svörun við pöruðum tónum (e. paired click paradigm) var könnuð (P50, N100, P200 bylgjurnar) annars vegar, og svörun á frávikstónaprófi (e. oddball-task) til að kanna P300 bylgjuna hins vegar. Auk þess var annað próf sem kannaði svörun eftir fyrirmælum (e. auditory-motor task, (AMT)). Tími, tíðnisvið og starfræn netkerfi voru greind. Uppsprettu tengingar heilaritsins (e. EEG source connectivity) voru metnar fyrir P300 bylgjuna (t.d. participation coefficient) og AMT var greint út frá graffræði (e. Graph theory), þar sem tengsl milli heilasvæða voru skoðuð (t.d. Characteristic path length (CPL) og small worldness (SW)). Niðurstöður sem fengust eftir meðferð (T2) voru bornar saman við niðurstöður sem fengust fyrir meðferð (T1) og gögnum frá þriðja hópi heilbrigðra einstaklinga (HC). Niðurstöður: Engar marktækar breytingar sáust á milli TG og CG á QoL, DASS og PSYRATS AHS svörunar né taugalífeðlisfræðilegum mælingum eftir RTMS meðferðina. Einnig voru reiknaðar út breytingar á taugalífeðlisfræðilegum mælingum og spurningalistum fyrir og eftir RTMS fyrir alla sjúklinga sem einn hópur. Þar sýndi N100 mest áberandi breytingar eftir RTMS á mörkum vinstra gagnauga- og hvirfilblaðs, frá -0,57 μV (SD 0,97) í -2,39 μV (SD 1,59), (p = 0.006, η2 = 0.346) og á miðlægu hvirfilblaði (p = 0.038, η2 = 0.218) sem bendir til þess að heilastarfsemi hafi breyst nálægt báðum örvunarstöðum. Eftir RTMS jókst N100-P300 spenna hjá sex sjúklingum, tveimur í TG og fjórum í CG, en lækkaði einnig hjá sjúklingum úr TG sem sýndu bestu klínísku útkomuna. Heildar aflrófsþéttleiki (e. power spectral density, (PSD)) á meðan á frávikstónaprófi stóð jókst í T2, aðallega fyrir alfa-bandið og beta-bandið yfir allt höfuðið, hjá sex einstaklingum, tveimur í TG og fjórum í CG. Niðurstöður netkerfa-tenginga (e. connectivity) fyrir tíð áreiti í frávikstónaprófinu sýndu aukinn aðskilnað við T2 athugun fyrir beta-bandið hjá sjö sjúklingum, fjórum í CG og þremur í TG. Rannsóknin leiddi í ljós að PSD svið hjá sjúklingum með geðklofa hækkaði í gamma-bandinu á tímabilinu milli tveggja hljóðskipana í AMT prófinu, samanborið við HC, sem var breytt án þess að vera marktækt. Breytingin var sýnileg og staðbundin yfir mörkum vinstra gagnauga- og hvirfilblaðs, þegar verkefnið var unnið með víkjandi hendi. Það bendir til þess að í þessu ástandi gæti gamma-samstilling verið merki um „taugaátak“eða vinnuálag þegar vinnsluminni er virkt, en ekki á meðan á heyrnar- eða hreyfibarkarvirkjun stendur. Graffræði var greind með tilliti til lág-gamma heilavirkni, á milli áreita í AMT verkefninu sem við kölluðum „non-cortical activation“, sem tengist vinnsluminni. Sú greining sýndi lækkuð SW gildi eftir RTMS þegar verkefnið var framkvæmt með víkjandi hendi. Þessi SW áhrif sem sáust hjá sjúklingunum voru svipuð og hjá HC hópnum. Tau-b fylgni Kendalls sýndi sterka, neikvæða fylgni á milli SW gilda lág-gamma fasa-sveiflna og PSYRATS AHS svörunar í T1, sem var tölfræðilega marktæk (τb = -0,788, p = 0,032). Eftir RTMS (T2) sást sterk jákvæð fylgni þar á milli (τb = 0,733, p = 0,039). Umræða: Þátttakendur í þessari rannsókn voru of fáir til að ná fram marktækum mun á milli hópanna TG-CG (t.d. var hópastærð fyrir PSYRATS AHS fyrirfram reiknuð fyrir 16 einstaklinga). Niðurstöður á einstaklingsgrunni sýndu umdeildar niðurstöður, þar sem meðal annars klínísk einkenni og taugalífeðlisfræðileg svörun batnaði hjá sjúklingum sem voru meðhöndlaðir á Cz svæðinu. Í verkefni þar sem tónapör voru lögð fyrir þátttakendur, sýndi N100 bylgjan aðlögun á mörkum gagnauga- og hvirfilblaðs eftir meðferð. P300 bylgjan var einnig mæld, þar sem tveir mismunandi tónar heyrðust, og annar þeirra var sjaldgæfari en hinn. Verkefnið var “óvirkt” í þeim skilningi að það krafðist engrar virkrar svörunar. Niðurstöðurnar úr greiningu sveifluvíddar P300 sem í flestum tilfellum minnkaði eftir RTMS, gætu verið í beinu sambandi við vanaáhrif (e. habituation) sem sjást hjá heilbrigðum einstaklingum (Polich, 1989). Ályktun: Niðurstöður rannsóknarinnar geta ekki með óyggjandi hætti sagt til um hvort RTMS sé áhrifarík meðferð fyrir sjúklinga með geðklofa og meðferðarþráar heyrnarofskynjanir. Þrátt fyrir það bar á áhugaverðum taugalífeðlisfræðilegar niðurstöðum. Ber þá helst að nefna breytingar á N100 sveifluvídd á mótum vinstra gagnauga- og hvirfilblaðs og lág-gammavirkni á tímabilinu á milli fyrirmæla í AMT. Áhugavert væri í framtíðinni að kanna frekar áhrif RTMS hjá þessum sjúklingahóp hvað varðar sveifluvídd N100 þar sem tóna-pör voru lögð fyrir (e. Paired click paradigm) og lág-gamma virkni mæld á milli fyrirmæl

    Rannsókn á börnum með matvendni, með og án taugaþroskaraskana í tveimur þýðum: Fæðumiðuð íhlutun í skólaumhverfi með börnum og foreldrum, og börn í offitumeðferð

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    Difficult eating behaviours such as fussy eating are consistently found in young children, and those with neurodevelopmental disorders (ND) such as Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), Attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD), anxiety, and depression. Fussy eating tends to peak in early childhood and then reduce, but less so for children with ND. Studies have also found links to fussy eating and children with obesity. Understanding fussy eating in children with obesity and comorbid disorders is important as acceptance of healthy foods tends to be low. Studies also indicate that increasing acceptance of healthy foods is difficult, especially in children with ND. Although studies on fussy eating have furthered our knowledge on eating behaviours, it is unfortunate that no inclusive food interventions exist for children with ADHD in addition to ASD and TD children, and none include parents in these settings. There were two overarching study aims: The first aim was to gain deeper insight into eating behaviours such as fussy eating in children with and without ND. The second aim was to investigate the effectiveness of the Taste education intervention in a school setting, in children with and without ND, and their parents. In paper I, a preliminary study on a sample of children with obesity, we found that fussy eating was common, and heightened in children with obesity and anxiety. The results were also in general accordance with taste preferences in children with fussy eating. In paper II which was built on screening data from the study sample in paper III, we analysed associations between parents and their children’s fussy eating, in a cross-sectional sample of children, with and without ND. Overall, children with ND accepted fewer food items and consumed unhealthier foods more frequently than children without ND. Fussy eating parents had children who accepted fewer food items and consumed unhealthier foods more frequently than children whose parents were not fussy eaters. In paper III, our second study sample, we investigated the effect of Taste Education, a 7-week food-based intervention with children and parents. We found superior results for Intervention compared to waiting, on Food fussiness, with stable effects through six-months follow-up. Results also showed increased odds of accepting vegetables, nuts, and seeds, but no association for fruit. Trends were similar for children regardless of ND-status for both fussy eating, and food acceptance. The Taste Education program provided a simple, noniv invasive way to decrease fussy eating and increase food variety in the longterm for children regardless of ND-status. Taken together, these papers provide new insights into fussy eating in Icelandic children with and without ND, and their parents. The results highlight a further need to study fussy eating, especially the relationships between fussy eating in children, their ND-status, and parents.Matvendni og aðrar raskaðar fæðuvenjar eru algengar hjá ungum börnum, sér í lagi þeim sem einnig hafa taugaþroskaraskanir (TÞR) á borð við raskanir á einhverfurófi og athyglisbrest með ofvirkni (ADHD), en einnig kvíða og þunglyndi. Hjá flestum börnum dregur úr matvendni með hækkandi aldri, en síður hjá börnum með TÞR. Rannsóknir hafa einnig sýnt fram á tengsl á milli matvendni og offitu hjá börnum, þar sem fæðuvenjur eru mótaðar af umhverfi barnsins, erfðum og fjölskyldu, ekki síst foreldrum. Hollar fæðutegundir eru síður samþykktar en óhollar hjá börnum með offitu og aðrar raskani eins og TÞR, og því mikilvægt að öðlast dýpri skilning á fæðuvenjum þessara barna. Rannsóknir sýna einnig að erfitt er að fá matvönd börn almennt ̶ en ekki síst börn með taugaþroskaraskanir að auki ̶ til að samþykkja hollari fæðutegundir. Fæðumiðaðar íhlutanir fyrir börn með þessar raskanir eru af skornum skammti og oftast bundnar við börn með einhverfu eingöngu, eða þau sem ekki hafa TÞR, en ekki íhlutanir hjá börnum með og án TÞR (þar með talið ADHD). Þó að rannsóknir á matvendni hafi aukið þekkinguna svo um munar, er óheppilegt að engar fæðumiðaðar íhlutanir séu í boði sem henta foreldrum, og börnum án TÞR og einnig börnum með TÞR svo sem ADHD og einhverfu. Einnig er mikilvægt er að hafa í huga að börn með fjölbreyttar raskanir endurspegla skóla án aðgreiningar. Þátttöka foreldra í fæðumiðuðum íhlutunum er einnig æskileg þar sem þeir leika lykilhlutverk í mótun fæðuvenja hjá börnum sínum og því mikilvægt að skoða betur tengsl fæðuvenja hjá börnum og foreldrum þeirra. Í þremur rannsóknum er kafað dýpra í matvendni barna frá ýmsum sjónarhornum. Í grein I eru niðurstöður forrannsóknar kynntar á börnum með offitu þar sem matvendni var algeng og sérstaklega hjá börnum með kvíða að auki. Niðurstöður sýndu einnig að börnin í þessu þýði samþykktu og höfnuðu bragði svipað því sem sjá má í öðrum rannsóknum. Í grein II sem byggðist á skimunargögnum úr grein III voru skoðuð tengsl matvendni hjá foreldrum og börnum með og án TÞR. Niðurstöður sýndu að börn með TÞR samþykktu færri fæðutegundir og borðuðu óhollari fæðu oftar en börn án TÞR. Börn matvandra foreldra samþykktu færri fæðutegundir og borðuðu óhollari fæðu oftar en börn foreldra sem ekki voru matvandir. Í grein III sem einnig byggðist á gögnum úr þýði II skoðuðum við áhrif Bragðlaukaþjálfunar (Taste Education) sem var 7 vikna fæðumiðuð íhlutun með börnum og foreldrum þeirra. Niðurstöður sýndu betri árangur þ.e. minni matvendni hjá inngripshópi samanborið við viðmiðunarhóp og hélst árangurinn til 6 mánaða. Rannsóknin sýndi einnig auknar líkur á að samþykkja grænmeti, hnetur og fræ en ekki ávexti. Niðurstöður báru vitni um svipaðan árangur hjá börnum óháð TÞR. Gagnstætt því sem sjá má í flestum fæðumiðuðum íhlutunum mátti sjá þátttöku foreldra, barna með og án TÞR, og langtímaárangur hjá börnum óháð TÞR. Bragðlaukaþjálfun er einföld, mild aðferð til að draga úr matvendni og auka fæðufjölbreytni hjá börnum til langs tíma óháð TÞR. Greinarnar þrjár veita nýja og dýpri innsýn í matvendi og fæðuvenjur íslenskra barna með og án TÞR og foreldrum þeirra. Niðurstöður varpa ljósi á nánari þörf fyrir rannsóknir á matvendni, sér í lagi tengslum matvendni hjá börnum, út frá TÞR og foreldrum barnanna.University of Iceland's Research fund (doctoral fund and research grant). Public Health Fund of the Directorate of Health. Fjarðarkaup grocery (study food items) Ásbjörn Ólafsson wholesale (end-of-study gifts

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    High enthalpy geothermal fluid utilization has a potential for growth for green and sustainable energy production. Geothermal energy production is often limited by the corrosive nature of the geofluids utilized. For successful, safe and economic operation, several technological challenges have to be overcome including the appropriate selection of material(s) for casing, pipelines and other equipment. This dissertation reports the results of a corrosion behaviour study for carbon steel and several corrosion-resistant alloys tested in contact with synthetic geothermal fluids at high temperatures. Corrosion tests were carried out using superheated steam (T = 350 °C and P = 10 barG) containing H2S, CO2 and HCl and the materials tested were carbon steel, stainless steel, nickel-based alloys, titanium alloys, high-entropy alloys. Some of the materials were further tested after silica (SiO2) had been deposited on the surfaces, and under boiling and condensing conditions at lower temperatures. In superheated fluid, carbon steel and Cu added high entropy alloys (HEAs) were prone to corrosion damage but negligible damages were observed in other corrosion-resistant alloys. The carbon steel was prone to more severe corrosion damage in the boiling and condensing conditions in comparison with the superheated test fluid, hence, the corrosion behaviour of carbon steel can be associated with the physical condition and temperature of the corrosive fluid. The extent of corrosion damage of Cu added high-entropy alloys (HEAs) in the superheated fluid is associated with increased Cu content and Cu-rich intermetallics. The corrosion rates of various materials were assessed by the mass loss method (MLM) and were less than 0.1 mm/year in all cases. Microstructural analysis was done via scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy (XEDS) and solid and powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. From the results, it can be concluded that the corrosion-resistant alloys are immune to corrosion damage in high-enthalpy superheated geothermal fluid containing H2S, CO2 and HCl and should be selected in preference to carbon steels and Cu added HEAs in such environments.RANNÍS, Landsvirkjun, Geothermal Research Grou

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