Journals of Vidzeme University of Applied Sciences
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ENERGY WOOD STORES IN UNDERGROWTH OF FORESTS IN LATVIA
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Forest resources are the most significant natural asset of the state of Latvia. According to data of the 2nd stage of forest resource monitoring for 2014, Latvia has 3575 thousand hectares of forest land comprising 55.3 percent of the total territory of Latvia, while the total timber stock is estimated at 668 million cubic meters (Bumanis et al., 2014).
However, from the available data on forest resources it is only possible to theoretically and hypothetically state what proportion of these resources would be useful and economically justified as an energy supply. Each forest stand has a certain amount of undergrowth and understorey – small woody plants (shrubs) which have not been researched much until now. A precise determination of the amount of energy wood in Latvian forests would be of great benefit to the Latvian economy.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Research data were collected in forests at the Jelgava Forest District “Forest Research Station”. The research was carried out in two forest subquarters of forest site type Myrtillosa mel. Eight circle-shaped sample plots were established. The area of each single plot was 25 m2.
In the sample plots, the understorey and undergrowth trees were cut at the root neck. A sample was prepared from each tree harvested which was then sent for drying.
The wood samples were transferred to "Forest and wood products research and development institute Ltd” for moisture determination. Total moisture content of the wood sample was determined according to standard LVS EN ISO 18134-2: 2016.
RESULTS
In the forest subquarter with a stand composition of 10Pine (66 years old) the sum biomass of undergrowth and understorey was 177.91 kg per sample plot. In the forest subquarter with a stand composition of 9Pine1Birch (88 years old) there was a total understorey tree mass of 180.9 kg but 16.17 kg of undergrowth per plot. This means there was more biomass in understorey than undergrowth in the site investigated.
DISCUSSION
When the tree stand was 10Pine (66 years old) the amount of dry matter to be extracted from all sample plots was 12.37 t ha-1 on average. In the forest subquarter with a stand composition of 9Pine1Birch (88 years old) the amount of dry mass is 10.24 t ha-1 on average.
According to previous research, 7-20 t ha-1 of dry mass was obtained in Sweden, 7 to 12 t ha-1 in Poland, 6 to 14 t ha-1 in Germany and 8 to 12 t ha-1 in Latvia (Lazdina et al., 2010). There are also several researches papers which describe biomass from young hardwood stands on abandoned agricultural land in Canada: the values vary from 0,6 t ha-1 to 82,6 t ha-1 (Lupi et al., 2017). Consequently, a sufficient amount of biomass was obtained in the forest subquarters investigated in our research, which fits with the results of other studies carried out.
CONCLUSION
The volume of potential energy wood in undergrowth and understorey in Myrtillosa mel. forest site types is significant and it is advisable to use it as a raw material for energy production together with felling residues. However, it is necessary to evaluate the technical and technological capabilities from an economic perspective in each particular case.
 
DEVELOPMENT OF A MICROSCOPY SLIDE SYSTEM OF BASIC SUBJECTS FOR INCLUSION IN E -STUDIES FOR MEDICAL AND DENTISTRY STUDENTS
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Medical and dentistry studies are time-consuming and require patience and perseverance. The study of basic medical subjects including Histology with Cell biology and Embryology require the possibility for regular study of tissues and self-evaluation which should not be limited in time, and should not be limited to classroom time. Furthermore, official slide-sets for the above-mentioned subjects often contain incomplete cell, tissue and organ slides which do not allow a full understanding of the teaching subjects. Thus, our aim was the development of a microscopy slide system for basic medical subjects to be included in e-studies which are accessible to medical students anywhere and anytime
MATERIALS AND METHODS
We planned to use 220 slides in Histology and 80 slides in Embryology. For the scanning process a Glissando Slide Scanner was used (Objective Imaging Ltd., UK). Slide images were then processed using Adobe Photoshop 7.0.1 Update and Paint.Net Software. A description of the slides was evaluated by three tutors, independent experts and IT specialists and all slides were transferred/incorporated into the Riga Stradiņš University e-study system.
RESULTS
The result was the development of 786 high quality digitalised slides with easily changeable magnification for two subjects: 372 new slides for use in Histology for the Medical faculty (MF) and 290 new slides for use in Histology for the Dentistry faculty (DF); 65 new slides for use in Embryology for the MF and 59 slides for the DF. Additionally, the quality of 230 Histology slides and 99 Embryology slides previously scanned using a press scanner were improved. Furthermore, descriptions of each slide were given in Latvian and English for easier orientation and to facilitate independent study. Altogether, slide descriptions were prepared for 16 2nd semester labs and 15 3rd semester labs in MF Histology, while the DF received 14 descriptions for 1st semester labs and 8 descriptions for 2nd semester labs in this subject. In Embryology, 6 lab slide descriptions for the MF were used and 5 lab slide descriptions for the DF were used. All slides were also marked with a special university watermark. The slide-set introduction contained a warning to students regarding copy/reproduction rights . In the end, the addition of slide study to e-studies was very highly evaluated by Latvian and foreign students in student feed-back questionnaires at the end of their studies in basic medical subjects.
CONCLUSION
The inclusion of Histology and Embryology slide-sets in e-studies allows an absolutely indispensable possibility for modern, independent study in medicine, saving the time of students and tutors outside the auditorium and creates the possibility of increasing the number of students in the classes. The digitalisation of high quality slides allows the development of many variations of basic teaching slides and expands teaching explanations in this way. The existing digitalised slide-sets and their descriptions can easily be changed if needed. However, the minus of such digitalised slide-sets in e-studies is that violations of university property copy rights by students cannot be excluded.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Foundation of Boris and Inara Teterevi is highly acknowledged for its financial support of the development of digitalised e-studies slide-set Programs in Histology and Embryology at Riga Stradiņš University.
 
FINANCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF STORM DAMAGE TO CONIFEROUS FORESTS IN LATVIA
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Storms are the primary factor reducing carbon sequestration in Europe’s forests, thus negatively affecting the ability of countries to fulfil their targets related to greenhouse gas balance (emission vs. sequestration). The impact of storms is rising due to an increase in forest cover, a preference for less wind-firm species (namely the Norway spruce) as well as the aging of forests in Europe (leading to greater vulnerability). Furthermore, climate change will affect the amount of damage. The frequency of windstorms and/or high speed wind gusts is expected to increase. The largest storms in our region occur mostly in autumn/winter – in the future this is likely to increase due to conditions in which it is more likely that tree anchorage is weak, due to the soil not being frozen and being saturated with water. From a sustainable forestry perspective, it is important to note that recreational use of those forests affected by storms as well as secondary damage (e.g. by bark beetle) will also be substantially reduced. Forest owners suffer direct financial losses as a result of storms. The aim of this study is to estimate the losses caused by storms and evaluate measures that could be used to reduce storm damage.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Forest owners suffer direct damage as a result of a loss of timber value from stem cracks (which is estimated to account for 20% of the volume of first (bottom) logs reduced to fire-wood quality), increased logging costs as well as additional regeneration, tending and precommercial thinning. The cost of these processes and the timber prices used in calculations are obtained from the Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia; information on the amount of timber damage during storms in the last decade is provided by the State Forest Service. To obtain information on the possibility of reducing storm damage, growth models (LSFRI Silava) are used in addition to assessments of vulnerability to storm damage (ForestGALES). The financial impact of damage-reduction measures is given as equivalent annual annuity (EAA) - interest rate 4%.
RESULTS
During the last decade, windstorms in Latvia alone have caused direct economic losses to forest owners of around €164 million, an average of €9 per m3 of wood from salvage logging. Vulnerability to damage increases as tree height increases (as critical wind speed decreases). Lower planting density slightly increases the critical wind speed (by 3-9%) (for Scots pine: 1500 trees ha-1vs current 3000 tree ha-1) and notably reduces the financial impact of storm damage: EAA for pine stands planted on the best soils is €15 ha-1 with sparser planting, and -€11 ha-1 with denser planting. If final harvest is planned by the stand age (101 years in majority of cases in Latvia), the financial impact of wind damage is higher in the best growing pine stands (site index Ia): in sparse stands the affect of wind damage reduces EAA by 38%, while stands with a lower site index are reduced by 25%. The reason for this is that faster-growing trees reach certain height, at which they are vulnerable to smaller (in terms of m s-1) critical wind speed, at earlier age. For example, the above-mentioned sparse Ia stand has a critical wind speed of ≤20ms-1 for 38% of its total rotation period, compared to 26% for the I stand. Thus, harvesting by constant age reduces the financial gain from the best-quality sites and silvucultural treatments aimed at increasing tree growth (e.g. planting best-growing genotypes). Therefore, harvesting by target diameter is recommended.
CONCLUSION
Major damage to forests mean owners are less willing to invest – thus reducing future potential wood flow for the industry. Therefore, changes in legislation concerning criteria for initial stand density and target diameter are recommended to minimize the negative economic impact of climate change (adapt)
THE SPECIFICATION OF HYDROLOGICAL MODEL REQUIREMENTS FOR BOG RESTORATION
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Within the scope of biodiversity and sustainable ecosystem development, the restoration of a bog’s ecosystem is important because by reducing the drainage effect on the bog, the negative impact on adjacent intact or relatively intact raised bog and other wetland hydrological regimes is lowered. Degraded bogs are mires with a disturbed natural hydrological regime, or those partly exploited for peat extraction. However, the hydrological regime can be restored and peat formation is expected within 30 years. The restoration of a bog’s hydrological regime can be accelerated by filling up the drainage ditches.
In the course of researching scientific literature, the author has found no evidence of a system dynamics model developed to simulate tree cutting intensity in degraded bogs after filling the drainage ditches for the purpose of speeding up the restoration of the hydrological regime. Thus, this approach is an innovative way of solving the problem.
Bog hydrological systems are complex systems with many components, thus an interdisciplinary approach must be applied which combines hydrology, biology, geography and meteorology with computer sciences. Specification requirement technique is a useful tool for determining the elements that shape a bog’s hydrological system and interact with each other, thus providing the design for a simulation model.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
In the opinion of the author, the most suitable specification requirement tool to determine components forming the bog hydrological system is (OOAD), because it is applicable both in system dynamics and object modelling systems. Based on OOAD, it will be able to build system dynamics models in STELLA system dynamics and the GEOframe NewAGE modelling system, which is based on an object modelling system framework.
OOAD principles are fundamentally based on real world objects (Powell-Morse, 2017) - in this case, the elements forming a bog’s hydrological system.
OOAD combines all behaviours, characteristics and states into one analysis process, rather than splitting them up into separate stages, as many other methodologies would do (Powell-Morse, 2017).
OOAD can be divided in two parts – Object-Oriented Analysis (OOA), and Object-Oriented Design (OOD). The products of OOA serve as models from which we may start an object-oriented design; the products of OOD can then be used as blueprints for completely implementing a system using object-oriented programming methods (Booch, 1998).
In the study of the boundaries of the bog hydrological model, theoretical methods such as case study and content analysis were mainly used - specifically evaluative, explorative and instrumental review methods.
RESULTS
This study helped to understand complex interrelationships that exist between different elements within a bog’s hydrological system. The bog hydrological system boundaries were clarified, and the simulation model specification requirements were determined.
DISCUSSION
The next step is to develop simulation models in STELLA system dynamics and the GEOframe NewAGE modelling system and compare the performance.
These simulation models will be made to represent water movement in a bog’s hydrological system from water input by means of precipitation to water output through interception, sublimation, evaporation, transpiration, lake outflow and overland flow.
The input data will be loaded manually from the QGIS Open Source Geographic Information System and Excel databases. It will be possible to generate output data in the form of frequency tables, graphical analysis, review tables, GIS raster files and others.
CONCLUSION
The determination of tree thinning intensity in degraded bogs using modelling is a new innovative approach which should allow the water level of ecosystems to be restored faster and more efficiently, thus increasing natural diversity, improving the quality of life of local people and promoting bog recreational ability
DYNAMIC SYSTEM SUSTAINABILITY SIMULATION MODELLING
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Assessing the sustainability of dynamic, open and complex systems with many stakeholders, interrelated components and interactions and forecasting with traditional study methods is complicated and has its limitations. Therefore, often researchers, when forecasting the sustainability of a dynamic system, rely on subjective judgment without references to assessment standards.
The aim of the paper is to create an imitation model for the sustainability of a dynamic system in order to assess and forecast the sustainability of the system under alternative development scenarios. It includes 3 main aspects - how sustainable is the dynamic system, what is the level of sustainability of a dynamic system under alternative development scenarios and what additions are needed to improve the functioning of the imitation model.
The research question of the paper is: what imitation model can effectively analyse and forecast a dynamic system in the case of the tourism object Cesis Palace.
Sustainable development researchers offer to build on traditional principles and interlinked dimensions of sustainable development: environment, economic and social, and adapt them to the dynamic system, which is characterized by the interactions between components (Tanguay et.al., 2011; Mai, Smith, 2018). One type of study that helps explain such systems is simulation modelling, which is often used when researching the interaction of dynamic systems (Johnson, 2011).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The Cesis Palace complex as a tourism site was used in the paper for an example of a dynamic system, since tourism is both a dynamic system with many interlinked components and equally important are the three dimensions of sustainability for its long-term development.
During the study, multiple data acquisition methods were used: a structured interview, analysis of statistics, case study analysis and an expert interview on the created imitation model.
To achieve the goal of the research, a model of a tourism sustainability imitation model was created using the STELLA dynamic system modelling environment. The model and the selection of indicators were based on the three key sustainability dimensions: economy, environment and society/culture.
RESULTS
The result of the work is a computer model that helps to assess the sustainability of a real-life system and its dimensions by entering data generated during the study. It concludes that the tourism object under consideration is potentially sustainable. Simulating alternative development scenarios, it can be concluded that the elements of one group of indicators can affect both the sustainability level of their own dimension, as well as the indicators of other dimensions and their sustainability level, as well the sustainability of the system overall. Significant changes in the system take place in a situation where a number of indicator groups are affected by the changes.
DISCUSION AND CONCLUSIONS
In order to use this model further, it would be necessary to develop an improved methodology for evaluating model indicators.
To ensure a more efficient model performance and data quality, data security and integrity should be taken into account. Creation of an imitation model requires the acquisition, processing and issuing of large amounts of data that are exposed to data security and integrity risks, which may have a negative impact, not only on the functioning of the model, but also on the system itself.
To significantly improve the definition, selection, value assignment, and to more accurately identify the importance of interfacing elements and to express future forecasts, the author proposes to evaluate the use of machine-learning in imitation modelling. Machine-learning algorithms are increasingly used by researchers in mechanical engineering applications
AN INTEGRATED APPROACH FOR SOCIO-TECHNICAL SYSTEMS ANALYSIS BY THE APPLICATION OF A WEB MAP SOLUTION
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Socio-technical systems modelling and analysis are playing an important role for sustainability and scenario evaluation in different situations and domains – environmental modelling and simulation, agricultural management, tourism simulation, educational purposes and many others. There are many challenges when scientists are faced with a practical systems simulation modelling situation. These challenges are on choosing an appropriate simulation modelling tool according to the particular situation and on-site integration of a large amount of data in the simulation environment. An option for that particular challenge is to develop a solution by the application of multiple modelling approaches and by integrating them with the Web map application to provide the online data needed for simulation processes and the analysis of different scenarios or outcomes.
The aim of this paper is to present the results of interdisciplinary research done in collaboration with scientists in environmental modelling and the socio-technical systems engineering fields.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Enterprise modelling as a model development tool is used to provide a holistic understanding of the mentioned domain. In the case of policy makers, the application of 4EM methodology and incorporation of a simulation modelling environment offers a comprehensive tool to influence relevant policies and regulations on the basis of the best available information and the outcome of different scenarios.
Modern web map applications provide an interactive form of data presentation, especially in the case of spatially related data. On the one hand, the user can easily define inputs to analyses and on the other hand, results of the analyses and simulations are presented in a way that the user can extract information on different levels.
RESULTS
As an outcome of this research is an integrated approach for socio-technical systems analysis which is applied in a Web Map Application to provide online visualization of the data provided in the form of maps, charts and tables.
This application also provides a participatory tool that involves scientists and members of the general public, working together to develop conceptual and dynamic models to address environmental issues. The parameters and conditions of these areas are continuously changing.
The enterprise modelling approach in combination with simulation tools and utilization of a modern web map application provides an active research tool in situations when many stakeholders are involved in building a comprehensive model and to get the most benefit from its outcome.
It also provides a holistic view of environmental processes and their influence on residential activities in the protected landscape areas.
A practical result of this paper, the solution designed and developed during the research was tested in a real life situation in Kala lake with inputs provided by the management board of the lake and an environmental agency. Visualization of the results in the form of an interactive web map application provided an explanatory and straightforward presentation of the results for an expert group, as well as for the general public.
The developed web map application combines the visualization of the results in the form of charts and tables with the visualization of spatially related phenomena as data layers in a map window, with other map layers from different data providers. On the other hand, the web map application provides functionality for users to insert the parameters of analytical methods and simulation tools to improve the results from previous iterations and/or additional conditions to the computations.
DISCUSSION
The advantages of the presented approach is to combine mathematical operations and simulations in the background while the results of these background operations are presented using graphical and cartographic methods in an explanatory form for a variety of users. The expansion of the utilization of web maps in recent years provides an interactive way to present information and to extract knowledge that are important as a support for further decision- and policy-making processes.
CONCLUSION
Future work is related with the application of a multi-approach in the socio-technical systems analysis, simulation, verification and validation processes. The interoperability of different modelling software would expand the functionality of the proposed software.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Michal Kepka was supported by the project LO1506 of the Czech Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports under the program NPU I
THE USE OF AIRFLOW TESTS AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS IN ASSESSING THE VOICE RANGE OF PROFESSIONAL SINGERS
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In the vocal arts, it is difficult to determine the exact type of human voice, and it is particularly challenging to identify the voice category of vocalist-beginners because the diapason of the voice has not fully developed. A vocalist often develops his or her voice in an unsuitable tessitura (sings in a wrong voice type) resulting in a loss of sound quality and damage to the voice. An objective metric-based system for the determination of the human voice is needed.
The detection for the correlation between the airflow and vital capacity of the lungs, anthropometric data of the singers and the type of the human voice.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sixty vocalists (ten sopranos, ten mezzo-sopranos, ten altos, ten tenors, ten baritones, and ten basses) were examined during this experimental research. All participants were professional singers who have been very successful singing in their voice category for more than five years. The Jaeger spirograph was used to investigate the volume of the peak expiratory flow of representatives of various voice categories, i.e. by measuring the speed of airflow in a time unit (per second). Measurements were made of height, body weight, vital lung capacity, and volume of the air flow per second in the big, middle and small bronchial tubes.
To analyse the results, leading indicators of descriptive statistics were calculated, and one-factor disperses analysis (ANOVA) was used in equivalence testing calculations of the average values of morphological qualities. All statistical calculations were performed with the “Statistics” programme (7.0 edition).
RESULTS
The average height of the vocalists: sopranos – 165,8; mezzo-sopranos – 168,1; altos – 175,8; tenors – 180,5; baritones – 187,5; basses – 188,2.
The average weight of the singers (kg): sopranos – 60,2; mezzo-sopranos – 70,5; altos – 74,1; tenors - 87,7; baritones – 91,4; basses – 92,6.
The average vital lung capacity of the singers (L): sopranos – 3,79; mezzo-sopranos – 3,96; altos – 4,35; tenors 5,13; baritones – 6,06; basses – 6,12.
The average peak expiratory flow of the singers per second (L/s): sopranos – 7,44; mezzo-sopranos – 7,43; altos – 8,19; tenors – 9,80; baritones - 11,49; basses – 11,2.
The average volume of the air flow per second in the big bronchial tubes of the singers(L/s): sopranos – 6,49; mezzo-sopranos – 9,29; altos – 7,42; tenors – 7,91; baritones – 10,07; basses – 9,77.
The average volume of the air flow per second in the middle bronchial tubes of the singers (L/s): sopranos – 4,60; mezzo-sopranos – 4,02; altos – 4,96; tenors 4,46; baritones – 5,79; basses – 5,73.
The average volume of the air flow per second in the small bronchial tubes of the singers (L/s): sopranos – 1,98; mezzo-soprano – 1,49; altos – 1,99; tenors – 1,69; baritones – 2,24; basses – 2,17.
There was a correlation between the airflow results e.a. Vital capacity, MEF 75 MEF 50 and PEF and the type of human voice, but there was no correlation between PEF 25 and the type of human voice.
There was a positive correlation between anthropometric data like weight and height and the pitch of the voice.
CONCLUSION
There is a correlation between the type of human voice and a person\u27s height, weight as well as their vital lung capacity and peak expiratory flow. According to our research data, an algorithm could be made for the determination of the type of human voice to avoid voice damage and health problems related to the forced use of the voice in a wrong pitch
THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF FINANCING SOCIAL PROTECTION IN LATVIA
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Public social protection spending in Latvia amounted to 15.2% of GDP in 2016. Financing social protection in terms of PPS per inhabitant was only 35% of the average amount in the EU-28 in 2016. The explanation for such a permanently low level of social protection funding is not only a modest level of economic development, but traditionally a low priority of social spending in Latvian politics. The analysis of changes in the financing level of social protection, the changes in the main sources of social protection, the impact of past reforms is in focus. The wide variety in financing structures of social protection systems across Europe and the different levels of financing provides an opportunity to better understand the specifics in Latvia and its mixture of sources of financing social protection system.
METHODS
The author uses data from ESSPROS, the State Social Insurance Agency, the Ministry of Welfare for 2005-2017 for Latvia and the EU28 and is doing analysis of secondary statistical data, public policy documents, analysis of legislative acts and Cabinet Regulations from 2005-2018.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The social insurance schemes are based on the pay-as-you-go principle and the distribution is achieved between the present contributors and the present recipients, at the same time the benefit amount is closely linked to the contributions paid by a certain individual. Such a system creates proper work incentives, albeit requires significant resources for its administration. The State Social Insurance Agency showed an excellent performance in dealing with this task. Latvia’s experience with the micro-enterprise tax regime demonstrated the pitfalls of an over-simplified approach to taxation, when the measure, aimed at combating unemployment, became a tax evasion trick at the cost of the workers’ social security.
The strong side of the existing model of financing social protection is its ability to maintain a positive balance even in the background of a very turbulent environment. The sustainability of the social insurance budget has always been and remains a top priority for policy-makers. Social contributions play the leading role in the existing mix of financing social protection. The share of old-age function benefits is higher than the EU28 average. The expenditures on some functions grew faster: spending on disability benefits increased by 99%, on unemployment by 75%, on old-age and family benefits by 64%. The last decade demonstrated a trend to an increasing role of the general government contributions. The social contribution rates are already quite high (35.09% in 2018) and can hardly be increased, otherwise labour costs might become uncompetitive. Therefore, a further increase of general government contributions seems unavoidable.
CONCLUSIONS
Trends in reforms and policy changes were diverse and even contradictory: cost saving, support of specific target groups, reallocating funds in financial flows, an increase of the pension age. A number of policy adjustments were based on the lessons learned during the crisis. Means-tested benefits are thinly represented in the Latvian social security system, and the thresholds used for their calculation are inadequately low. The Latvian healthcare system is chronically underfinanced. It also has a high ratio of out-of-pocket co-financing by patients. Austerity measures had a strong influence on social protection expenditures from 2009–2014. Among the weaknesses of the social insurance schemes, one should mention the inadequately low minimum levels of benefits, especially as concerns old-age pensions. Low wage earners might have a disincentive to diligently pay the contributions, seeing that even the average old-age pension is lower than the at-risk-of-poverty threshold
DEPOSIT REFUND SYSTEM FOR BEVERAGE CONTAINERS IN LATVIA: LEARNINGS WITHIN THE BALTIC STATES
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One of the main global environmental problems we are facing is the increasing the amount of waste. There are numerous policy instruments used to reduce the environmental impact of packaging. Many EU member states use producer levies, packaging and resource taxes, deposit-refund systems and producer responsibility systems (Bailey, 2017; Watkins et al., 2017).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
In this article we conduct comparative analyses and evaluate the effectiveness of deposit-refund systems for beverage packaging in the three Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Data used in the study is obtained from statistical databases of the Central Statistical Bureau, Eurostat and Euromonitor, as well as from stakeholders of the deposit-refund system - beverage manufacturers, retailers and waste management organisations. When necessary data was not available, we made calculations and approximations using analogies with neighbouring countries, e.g. regarding the quantity of different kinds of beverage containers (plastics, glass, cans) delivered to the market, the average weight of containers, changing trends etc.
RESULTS
To stimulate the rate of beverage packaging collection and recycling, both Estonia (2005) and Lithuania (2016) have introduced deposit-refund systems. Both are mandatory centralized systems with collection rates over 90%. The strengths of the Estonian system are a result of sophisticated IT solutions, differentiated EAN coding logic, elasticity and good management. The Lithuanian system is one of the most technologically advanced systems. One of its positive features is the lease of taromats, reducing the upfront investment costs for retailers and producers.
DISCUSSION
Previous research shows that the introduction of a deposit-refund system increases the collection rate of beverage packaging (Dewey, Denslow, Chavez, Romero, & Holt, 2011; Lavee, 2010) but requires substantial organisational and financial resources. It is more economically viable to introduce a deposit system when separate waste collection system is already in place. The results of this study are similar.
CONCLUSION
Latvia needs a DRS in order to achieve PET goals and reduce environmental pollution;
The required score and distribution is about the same
A DRS has to be operated by a non-profit organisation consisting of manufacturers and retailers;
The recommended deposit is 10 cents;
Provision should be made for the inclusion of beverage cartons and alcoholic beverage bottles;
Provision should be made for the inclusion of refillable glass bottles and jars
DIGITAL ERA IN CROSS-SECTIONAL HUMAN ANATOMY: THE USE OF DETAILED IMAGES IN THE STUDY PROCESS
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An increasing number of digital technologies have been introduced which assist in some practical aspects of the teaching and learning of Human Anatomy. For modern-day students, more and more cross-sectional images of the human body are available as materials in their studies. Digital 2D images and/or 3D images such as high-resolution computed tomography (CT) scans and magnetic resonance (MR) have been received with much enthusiasm and have found their way into anatomy courses and practical classes. An emphasis on sectional anatomy can help medical students develop and improve their knowledge of cross‐sectional imaging.
The aim of this study was to assess and verify the impact of cross-sectional images on the study of Human Anatomy.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
200 medical students in their 2nd study year at Rīga Stradiņš University were included in this investigation in 2018. In practical classes, all students were asked by tutors to identify several anatomical structures using "Anatomage", a 3D virtual dissection table (USA). They were randomly divided into two groups: Group I analysed cross-sectional images of the human body after cutting and segmentation with interactive tools; Group II studied X-rays, CT scans and MRI images of different regions and systems. Similar images in all possible cross-sectional planes were displayed. The pathological findings from the cross-sectional images were used to develop several clinical questions and cases. At the beginning of each practical class, the tutor spent about 30 minutes demonstrating the themes in the images to all the students. At the end of the teaching session, their understanding of the relationships between anatomical structures and the rate of cross-sectional image effectiveness among both groups was assessed by means of discussion.
RESULTS
By this time, students were able to identify the position of bones and organs from the lectures, practical classes and dissections. The majority of students recognized the landmarks, anatomical structures and relationships between them on cross-sectional images in three planes. By removing different kinds of tissue, students in both groups were able to learn more difficult anatomical topics and to explain details in these complicated regions. Self-assessment exercises helped students verify their understanding of topographical relations and regional anatomy. In these groups, students with less prior anatomy experience wanted to focus more on the basics of anatomy whereas students with more prior anatomy experience wanted to see and study more complex and interactive materials in cross-sectional images.
CONCLUSION
This study demonstrated the role of the 3D virtual dissection table "Anatomage" in facilitating students\u27 ability to interpret cross-sectional images and understand the relationships between different anatomical structures. All the X-rays, CT scans and MRI cross-sectional images used played an important role in the teaching and learning of Human Anatomy. Skills and the ability to interpret these medical images is important for the application of anatomical knowledge right from basic studies until clinical courses.