DigitalCommons@C.O.D.

Caputo, Brian

Dr. Brian Caputo reads selections from  The Quest for Peace and Justice,  Nobel Peace Prize Lecture by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

Chowdhury, Shaheen

Shaheen Chowdhury reads  Let It Be Known,   I Am Woman,  and  Advice to the Youth,  by Margaret Burroughs and  Ain\u27t I a Woman?  by Sojourner Truth

Zelman, Deb

Deb Zelman reads selections from Q: The Autobiography of Quincy Jones by Quincy Jones

Gutierrez Garcia, Melissa

ESSAI 
Volume 17 Article 20 
Spring 2019 
Euthanasia and Desire Theory: The Ethical Case for Assisted 
Suicide 
Melissa Gutierrez Garcia 
College of DuPage 
Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.cod.edu/essai 
Recommended Citation 
Gutierrez Garcia, Melissa (2019) "Euthanasia and Desire Theory: The Ethical Case for Assisted Suicide," 
ESSAI: Vol. 17 , Article 20. 
Available at: https://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol17/iss1/20 
This Selection is brought to you for free and open access by the College Publications at DigitalCommons@COD. It 
has been accepted for inclusion in ESSAI by an authorized editor of DigitalCommons@COD. For more information, 
please contact orenick@cod.edu. 
54 
Euthanasia and Desire Theory: The Ethical Case for Assisted Suicide 
 
by Melissa Gutierrez Garcia 
 
(Philosophy 1110) 
 
 
 
he ethical realm applies to all areas of life, and this includes, as is my focus in this essay, the 
medical field. With growing research and findings, those in the medical profession find 
themselves asking, with increasing regularity, “Is this ethical?”. In and of itself this question 
carries an enormous amount of “normative” weight, not to mention ambiguity. However, through 
sound argumentation we can gain progress and perspective into complex issues of an ethical nature. 
In this case, voluntary active euthanasia will be analyzed through the scope of “desire satisfaction 
theory” and the case will be made in favor of euthanasia. 
Desire satisfaction theory is grounded in the idea of pluralism, which is inseparable from the 
central concern with human emotions. Pluralism focuses on the possibility of living a good life 
through various means, personal authority, and the idea of the uniqueness of individuals. 
More specifically, it is focused on “a variety of good lives”, and how as humans we are motivated in 
fulfilling our desires.1 It is argued by those embracing desire satisfaction theory that “our individual 
desires hold the key to a good life”2; in short, this indicates that my desires may not be the equivalent 
of your desires and for that reason would not contribute to improving your well-being, only mine. If 
such desires bring about well-being, then they are thought to be motivational, and should therefore be 
pursued. This is to say, my desires and the goodness I achieve based on them, is enough to motivate 
me to bring them to fruition. Let us now apply this philosophical notion to a specific situation by way 
of an ethical vignette. 
Person B is at the end stages of a painful terminal disease and desires suicide. In medical 
cases concerning suicide as an end to an undesirable situation, we must be sure to carefully and 
rationally question all variables of the situation. For the sake of argument, my claim is based on the 
idea that the desired suicide is medically assisted. Since desire theory embraces the idea of personal 
authority, then it is arguably permissible for Person B to take his/her own life through assisted 
suicide, grounded in the notion that Person B desires to alleviate her suffering and avoid inevitable 
degeneration to her well-being. 
For years now, euthanasia has been a growing point of discussion in the expansive world of 
medicine. There are several definitions of euthanasia- I will however, hone in specifically on 
voluntary active euthanasia. This is defined as the deliberate act of administering lethal medication to 
a person per their request.3 To clarify, although suffering pain and discomfort, the patient is 
otherwise fully conscious and of sound mind when deciding to take such path. Voluntary active 
euthanasia has gained popularity and thus through argumentation has also gained legality in various 
parts of the world. It is currently legal in seven U.S states, as well many countries around the globe.  
 
 
 
 
  
1 Shafer Landau. The Fundamentals of Ethics. UK: Oxford University Press, 45-48. 
2 Ibid., 48. 
3 Christian Nordqvist. What are Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide? US. Medical News Today. 
T
1
Gutierrez Garcia: Euthanasia and Desire Theory
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2019
55 
 The individual state law governs the rules and definitions of euthanasia in terms of what is 
legal, but there is one overarching idea: The patient must go through extensive evaluation prior to 
making a decision on taking their life.4 Once this evaluation has been completed, and the patient has 
been deemed mentally sound, they are able to continue taking steps towards ending their life. As 
harsh as this idea may seem, ultimately, as humans only we can reap the positive or negative 
consequences that inevitably accompany the choices we make. 
Personal authority is the ability to make decisions and act upon one's’ own body as deemed 
fit, or in the case of desire satisfaction theory, as desired. Such criteria afford Person B full 
responsibility to go through with the assisted suicide without requiring permission of any other moral 
agent or figure of legal authority. In the view of desire theory however, it is important that the means 
are justified, or in this case, ethically motivated. The means through which life would be taken would 
be painless. In most places that voluntary active euthanasia is legal, the physician will administer a 
painkiller right before the lethal medication.5 This would be performed by a medical professional that 
would have already discussed all options with Person B, e.g., the illogical conclusion that Person B 
might somehow miraculously recover through treatment to enjoy a fruitful existence in the future. In 
addition, Person B’s life will come to an end regardless of the cause, be it natural or euthanasia. 
Allowing the patient to be eased of pain provides the ethical and legitimate conditions for a peaceful 
passing. The procedure to take person B’s life is one that would fulfill their desires without further 
impeding that person’s dignity by allowing the medical affliction to progress. 
One may, based on my argument, say that since their, Person B’s, life is already coming to an 
end then there should be no reason to end it sooner. However, desire satisfaction theory claims that if 
“something makes us better off, and it satisfies our desires, then we have reason to obtain it”. 6 As 
stated, the terminal disease that Person B is living with, be it what it may, is causing pain. According 
to a study done by several doctors, “the experience of pain is constant across major terminal 
diseases.”7 Furthermore, this study demonstrated that out of 988 terminally ill patients, 52 percent of 
patients had sought out treatment for the pain from their primary care physician in the four-week 
prior to the study. What is more, 50 percent of those same 988 terminally ill patients described their 
pain as moderate to severe. But, as we have claimed, Person B is in severe pain. As with so many 
other patients, terminal disease especially at the end stages cause nothing but suffering and misery. In 
regards to Person B’s life, they have every reason to obtain that which will make them better off- 
voluntary active euthanasia. 
There may also be the claim that the type of suicide chosen by Person B should make no 
difference in the position I have argued. However, research supports the idea that there is statistically 
a much higher chance of failure in self-attempted suicides. Approximately only four percent of those 
who attempt suicide are successful.8 This leaves us with a 96 percent survival rate for attempted 
suicide. If this situation obtained, such failure would not be conducive to obtaining that which is 
“good” for Person B, and thus negate that which is fundamental in desire theory, achieving a state of 
well-being for the individual in question. 
 
 
 
 
  
4 Physician-Assisted Suicide Fast Facts. US. CNN. 
5 Ibid. 
6 Shafer Landau. The Fundamentals of Ethics. UK: Oxford University Press, 48. 
7 Stefan Weiss, Linda Emanuel, Diane Fairclough, Ezekiel Emanuel. Understanding the Experience of Pain in 
Terminally Ill Patients. US. The Lancet. 
8 SAVE. SAVE Website, accessed April 25, 2019. https://save.org/about-suicide/ 
2
ESSAI, Vol. 17 [2019], Art. 20
https://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol17/iss1/20
56 
As mentioned at the outset, the ethical realm is one that holds various ideals and perspectives. 
One of these being the system of Moral Law Ethics as explained by Kant. His theory is founded in 
objectivism, intrinsic worth, and human dignity. Kant states that a human is “rational and 
autonomous… and [thus these traits] support the dignity of each human being.”9 Furthermore, due to 
this inherent dignity, Kant claims that we have an obligation to treat ourselves with dignity and 
therefore in his view, portrays suicide as immoral. There is a list of actions that in Kant’s eyes are 
inherently immoral, regardless of any reason behind it. In this system, there is no consideration for 
circumstance, personal desires, or needs. This puts us humans in a difficult situation if adhering to 
Kant’s Moral Law Ethics. It forces us to put aside all desire, even that in which a higher level of 
well-being is the goal. Moreover, it appears, in a contradictory manner, forces us to renounce the 
same autonomy Kant claims to base his system on. In this case, Person B would not be able to follow 
through with the choice to take their own life. Person B would not only be stripped of free-will, they 
would also be forced to further deteriorate. This would be contradictory to the duty outlined by Kant 
of treating oneself with dignity. We must consider fully the ideals that we as humans adhere to; life is 
full of circumstances, desires, and motivations. All these areas are taken into consideration by Desire 
Satisfaction Theory and allow those in the same situation as Person B to decide on what is best for 
them, even if it is euthanasia. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
9 Shafer Landau. The Fundamentals of Ethics. UK: Oxford University Press, 177 & 178. 
3
Gutierrez Garcia: Euthanasia and Desire Theory
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2019


English

Euthanasia and Desire Theory: The Ethical Case for Assisted Suicide

Lauzadis, Matas

ESSAI 
Volume 17 Article 29 
Spring 2019 
The Clean Power Plan 
Matas Lauzadis 
College of DuPage 
Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.cod.edu/essai 
Recommended Citation 
Lauzadis, Matas (2019) "The Clean Power Plan," ESSAI: Vol. 17 , Article 29. 
Available at: https://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol17/iss1/29 
This Selection is brought to you for free and open access by the College Publications at DigitalCommons@COD. It 
has been accepted for inclusion in ESSAI by an authorized editor of DigitalCommons@COD. For more information, 
please contact orenick@cod.edu. 
90 
The Clean Power Plan 
 
by Matas Lauzadis 
 
(Chemistry 1551) 
 
 
 
he Clean Power Plan, originally proposed by the EPA in June 2014, was an Obama 
administration policy which sought to combat human-caused climate change. The plan 
originally aimed to lower carbon dioxide emissions created by power generators by 32% 
relative to the 2005 levels by reducing emissions and increasing the use of renewable energy and 
conservation of energy. Logistically, the plan required individual states to meet carbon dioxide 
emission standards. If the state failed to create a plan and submit it to the EPA, a plan would be 
imposed upon it. The EPA estimated the Clean Power Plan (CPP) would reduce pollutants 
contributing to smog and soot by 25 percent, yielding a net health and climate benefit of $25-45 
billion per year after 2030. The focus on carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from coal plants was 
supported by the Energy Information Administration’s (EIA) claim that coal in 2015 produced 1.3 
billion metric tons of carbon dioxide, which was about 71% of CO2 emissions from the electric 
power sector. Combining this with the fact that wind power is cheaper to obtain than coal power, it is 
no wonder why the Obama administration concentrated on reducing coal power emissions. 
 The CPP demonstrated to the world that the United States would be a leader in climate 
reform. Following its announcement, countries around the world rushed to create their own plans. 
The United Nations (UN) drafted The Paris Agreement, which aims to take action against global 
greenhouse gas emissions starting in 2020. It is very important for more developed nations to enact 
these plans since underdeveloped nations are unable to combat the effects of climate change such as 
drought, famine, and other human-caused disasters. The EPA has also determined that an increased 
rate of climate change will lead to increased drought, famine, and even insurance premiums. 
 Overall, the Clean Power Plan sought to reform carbon emissions, focusing on creating 
cleaner sources of electricity, such as wind power, and reforming existing coal energy sources. The 
result would have been great economic and health benefits, reducing early deaths due to toxic power 
plant emissions by as much as 90%, and saving almost $50 billion per year after 2030. 
 Those in support of the Clean Power Plan claim that because of its repeal, we will see greater 
economic and climate damage than ever before. 
 According to the Energy Innovation’s Energy Policy Simulator, repealing the CPP will lead 
to an increase in carbon dioxide emissions of 500 million metric tons by 2030, increasing risk of 
disease and death in lower-income communities located near these toxic plants. The CPP was 
estimated to prevent 870 million tons of CO2 from entering the atmosphere per year by 2030, but its 
repeal will not only re-contribute those 870 million tons, but add an additional 500 million tons, a 
22% increase from 2017 levels. Although many industrial jobs would have been lost as the U.S 
shifted its focus, the CPP would have created more jobs in clean power fields, such as wind power. 
The amount of CO2 emissions reduced would be equivalent to removing 75 million cars from the 
road, which is about 30% of all vehicles in the USA as of 2014. 
 Supporters claim that giving the EPA the power to enforce these stringent carbon emission 
standards is necessary for immediate action. Leaving the problem for individual states to solve will 
result in foot-dragging and slower results. Another key aspect of the CPP is the fact that early 
adopters of the EPA’s standards would be rewarded under the Clean Energy Incentive Program 
(CEIP). States which produce one MWh (megawatt hour) of clean, carbon free energy will be 
T
1
Lauzadis: The Clean Power Plan
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2019
91 
awarded one ERC (Emission Rate Credit). These credits can then be sold, providing an incentive for 
states to begin reform immediately. The gamification of climate reform with ERCs is a fascinating 
move as it increases competition between states while rewarding both the state and the environment. 
 Another reason the CPP was well-received is because of its highly-focused plan. It was not a 
generalized climate change reform, it focused specifically on coal power plants and finding a way to 
lower their emission rates. Countless scientists and EPA officials supported the plan, further adding 
to the credibility of its projected results. 
 The Obama administration, upon approving the CPP, estimated that it would prevent 3,600 
premature deaths due to air quality. On top of this, The Trump administration’s EPA found that the 
plan would prevent 4,500 premature deaths, a stark increase from the Obama administration’s 
estimate. So why was it repealed? 
 Critics of the Clean Power Plan claim that it gives the EPA too much power over states by 
setting impossible-to-meet standards. Operators of coal plants claim that in order to meet these 
standards, they would have had to limit their production of electricity, or shut down completely, as it 
was impossible to retrofit CO2 capture technology at a reasonable cost. In turn, this would have 
raised the cost of living for millions of Americans across the nation. The Heritage Foundation’s 
studies into economic effects of the CPP demonstrate that the plan would cause a loss of almost 
500,000 jobs by 2030: decreasing GDP by billions and household incomes by over $10,000. NERA 
Economic Consulting estimates an increase of 11 to 14% of household electricity rates, which would 
unfairly punish less affluent neighborhoods which rely on electricity for heating, cooling, and 
cooking. 
 However, the economic issues created are outweighed by environmental benefits, right? 
Actually, the Obama EPA’s own estimates, using an EPA-supported simulation called MAGICC, 
show that after completely conforming to these high standards, we will only see a 0.018oC 
temperature rise aversion by the year 2100, and only a fraction of that aversion by 2030. This is too 
small of a change for the economic damages that we would face. Also, the plan imposes tougher 
standards on existing power sources than on new power sources, which critics claim is unreasonable 
as older power sources will always be less efficient than newer ones. This essentially forces older 
power plants to limit their production to meet the high standards, inevitably shutting them down 
completely. 
 Another issue created by the Clean Power Plan is the issue of authority. Does the EPA have 
the right to control states’ power sectors? According to Section 111(d) of the Clean Air Act, the EPA 
is limited to setting standards that facilities can affordably meet through technological or operational 
modifications. However, the Obama administration interpreted this to allow the EPA to set standards 
too tough for existing power facilities to meet, requiring these facilities to limit production or even 
shut down. And if the state were to fail to meet these limits, the EPA would be able to mandate an 
individualized power plan, completely removing the state government from consideration. This 
disrupts the federalist system that has been in place since the Constitution’s inception. 
 In short, critics of the Clean Power Plan claim that the environmental benefits do not justify 
the large economic costs resulting from it. 
 Climate change is real. It is strange that we still have to reiterate this fact, but our current 
administration’s stance on climate change makes it necessary. It is important to note that America is 
not the only contributor to climate change. China, for example, spews over double America’s CO2 
emissions, killing 1.1 million Chinese each year. Although the Clean Power Plan takes the right step 
towards global climate reform, it is unfair to economically punish ourselves while other countries 
enjoy the financial benefits of unrestricted CO2 emissions. This is why I believe this should not be a 
national issue, but a global issue. The Paris Agreement is a good example of a global effort to curb 
climate change, but it fails in enforcing and monitoring carbon emissions: countries are not legally 
2
ESSAI, Vol. 17 [2019], Art. 29
https://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol17/iss1/29
92 
obligated to meet these standards until it comes into effect, after 55% of the world’s carbon emitters 
ratify the treaty. I would like to see a more aggressive global approach to climate change, rewarding 
those who commit to using more renewable energy and punishing those who fail to adapt to the 
standards. 
 Another way I feel the Clean Power Plan failed is its focus. As of February 2016, emissions 
stemming from transportation were higher than emissions caused by power plants. I believe America 
should revitalize its public transportation networks and create more mass-transportation methods 
rather than shut down power plants, increasing rates across the nation. Especially as Americans 
continue to branch out further and further from city hubs to the suburbs, our reliance on personal 
vehicles increases. If our bus systems were to be revamped, we would see up to 50 single-passenger 
vehicles replaced by just one bus. Not only will this decrease road wear, it would also increase 
efficiency and would offer a cheaper alternative to a car. The current state of America’s public 
transportation is shameful. I work with a man who recently immigrated from Nigeria, and the lack of 
bus stops forces him to either walk over two hours each day (each way!), or purchase a trip from a 
ridesharing company such as Uber or Lyft, severely cutting into his free time / money. 
Creating more bus stops does not seem as difficult as retrofitting billion dollar CO2 capture devices 
on crumbling decades-old power plants. 
 In conclusion, climate change and CO2 emissions is a multilateral issue. The Clean Power 
Plan’s focus solely on power plants was too narrow in scope, especially since transportation 
emissions top power plant emissions as of 2016. We cannot solve the issue with only one plan, and 
we definitely cannot solve the issue by refusing to acknowledge climate change. The United States’ 
isolationist stance on climate change is dangerous. We will not become carbon-neutral overnight; we 
need to work towards sustainability with experimental acts such as the Clean Power Plan. 
 
 
  
 
Sources 
 
"Clean Power Plan for Existing Power Plants". EPA. Archived from the original on March 25, 2016. 
Retrieved August 14, 2018. 
"A new national Clean Power Plan". Environmental Defense Fund. Retrieved 2015-12-11. 
Foster, Peter (3 August 2015). "Barack Obama unveils plan to tackle greenhouse gases and climate 
change". The Telegraph. Retrieved August 3, 2015. 
Plumer, Brad (August 3, 2015). "Obama just released his most ambitious climate policy yet — the 
Clean Power Plan". Vox. Retrieved August 3, 2015. 
EPA, OAR,OAA, US. "FACT SHEET: Clean Power Plan Benefits". www2.epa.gov. Retrieved 
December  11,  2015. "How much of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions are associated with 
electricity generation?" Retrieved December 16, 2016. "Lazard's Levelized Cost of 
Energy Analysis 10.0" (PDF). 
Change, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate. "The Paris Agreement – main 
page". unfccc.int. Retrieved 2017-04-06. 
"Putting a Price on Carbon: Ensuring Equity | World Resources Institute". www.WRI.org. 
Retrieved April 6, 2017. 
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2015/08/03/remarks-president-
announcing-clean-power-plan 
3
Lauzadis: The Clean Power Plan
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2019
93 
https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2017-10/documents/ria_proposed-cpp-
repeal_2017-10_0.pdf  
https://www.latimes.com/business/autos/la-fi-hy-ihs-automotive-average-age-car-20140609-
story.html  
https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/cleanpowerplan/fact-sheet-clean-energy-incentive-
program_.html  
http://environment.law.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Emission-Rate-Credits-in-
the-Clean-Power-Plan.pdf  
https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2015/05/benefits-of-clean-power-plan-are-clear/  
https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/repealing-the-clean-power-plan-will-benefit-all-
americans  
https://wattsupwiththat.com/2014/06/12/epa-leaves-out-the-most-vital-number-in-their-fact-
sheet/  
https://www.iied.org/qa-steps-enforcing-paris-agreement 
https://www.citywindsor.ca/residents/transitwindsor/Rider-Programs/green-
initiatives/Pages/Personal-Vehicles-Versus-Public-Transit.aspx 
 
 
 
 
4
ESSAI, Vol. 17 [2019], Art. 29
https://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol17/iss1/29


The Clean Power Plan

Maestas, Jade

ESSAI 
Volume 17 Article 31 
Spring 2019 
From Miasma to Microbe 
Jade Maestas 
College of DuPage 
Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.cod.edu/essai 
Recommended Citation 
Maestas, Jade (2019) "From Miasma to Microbe," ESSAI: Vol. 17 , Article 31. 
Available at: https://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol17/iss1/31 
This Selection is brought to you for free and open access by the College Publications at DigitalCommons@COD. It 
has been accepted for inclusion in ESSAI by an authorized editor of DigitalCommons@COD. For more information, 
please contact orenick@cod.edu. 
100 
From Miasma to Microbe 
 
by Jade Maestas 
 
(Chemistry 1551) 
 
 
 
hilosophers and scientists throughout recorded history have attempted to explain the cause of 
disease and its spread. From the mystical to the mundane, humanity has placed the blame for 
pestilence on a myriad of debunked sources, including witchcraft, demons, comets, and 
earthquakes (Karamanou et al. 58). Championed by notable historical figures such as the ancient 
Greek physician Hippocrates and the celebrated 19th century nurse Florence Nightingale, one such 
prominent theory of disease held considerable sway around the world for centuries: miasma theory 
(UCLA Department of Epidemiology, “Prevailing Theories of Cholera”). Though now superseded by 
germ theory, distinguished physicians and laypeople alike once ascribed to the idea of miasma, or 
“corrupted air,” as an explanation for the existence and spread of diseases. 
Texts originating as early as the fifth century, such as those found in the collection of ancient 
Greek medical works known as the Hippocratic Corpus, warned of miasma and its connection with 
disease (Van der Eijk 119). According to the theory, air could become polluted with toxic vapors 
(Karamanou et al. 58). When inhaled, this “miasmatic” air could cause disease within the body 
(Halliday 1469). Allegedly, the toxic vapors typically arose from decaying organic material or 
stagnant, foul-smelling places. As such, sources of miasma were supposed to include rotting 
vegetation, sewage, marshes, swamps, stagnant water, ditches, deep valleys, cracks in the earth, and 
corpses (Sterner 3; Halliday 1469; Van der Eijk 130). In 1349, Spanish-Arab physician Ibn Khatimah 
advised that foul odors, specifically, indicated the presence of miasmatic air (Sterner 3). Further, 
ancient Greek and Roman physicians like Galen of Pergamon and Hippocrates taught that miasma 
could spread from one area to another via wind (Jones 109-110). Stagnant mists and fog, too, were 
often considered forms of miasma. For example, Chinese scholars in the Sui Dynasty called the 
concept “zhang” and attributed malaria and other maladies to the supposedly pathogenic gas 
produced by mists around mountains and creeks (Zhu 384).  
Later, medieval writers referred to the same concept as pestilential, putrefied, or corrupted 
air, and many cited it as the source of the various plagues that occurred throughout the time period, 
including the bubonic plague known as The Black Death (Sterner 2; Jones 112). “Marshes, sluggish 
waterways, damp and dark valleys in the countryside and slaughterhouses, tanneries and garbage 
heaps in the cities were accepted as potential local sources of disease because of their propensity to 
generate corrupted and foul-smelling air” (Jones 111). At the time, medical recommendations 
included instructions to avoid such places and odors and even to remove toxic smells from the air 
with the use of sweet or strong-smelling fragrances (Hardin Library for the Health Sciences; Jones 
111). The bird-like masks associated with plague doctors of the medieval ages are a testament to this 
advice. The “beak” of one such mask would act as a respirator, filtering the air with “dried flowers 
(e.g. roses or carnations), herbs (e.g. mint), spices, camphor or a vinegar sponge” (Hardin Library for 
the Health Sciences). Informed by the miasma theory of disease, civic regulations attempting to 
improve cleanliness levels were also increasingly enacted in the hopes of limiting miasma production 
(Jones 111). 
The scholars and philosophers who promoted miasma theory largely subscribed to it because 
of the observation that epidemic diseases seemed most prevalent in dirty, undrained, and foul-
smelling areas (Richards 1). In the earlier centuries of recorded human history, the drainage of 
swamps and removal of corpses from populated areas seemed to improve public health (Curtis 13). 
P
1
Maestas: From Miasma to Microbe
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2019
101 
Later on, paved streets, sewers, clean-smelling water, ventilation, and garbage disposal methods were 
consistently associated with a reduction in disease rates (Nikolova, 540). The success that drainage, 
waste disposal, and cleanliness measures appeared to have at reducing rates of illness seemed to 
support the idea that waste, decay, and stagnant mists were in some way related to disease.  
With miasma theory at its heart, the sanitary movement of the 19th century revolutionized 
public sanitation, particularly in Europe and the United States (Pizzi). At first, the success of the 
movement seemed only to further support the theory of corrupted air. During this time, epidemics 
rampantly spread throughout concentrated urban areas, seemingly in correlation with the increased 
filth brought by higher populations and increased urbanization (Pizzi; Committee for the Study of the 
Future of Public Health 58-59). Yet much success was eventually achieved in controlling these 
epidemics due to the efforts of sanitation reformers throughout the century. In 1842, Edwin 
Chadwick, a prominent British sanitary reformer, published his influential Report on the Sanitary 
Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain, which called for the implementation of 
significant sanitary improvements, such as house drainage systems to remove corrupted sewage gas 
from within and around homes (Halliday 1469). His ideas eventually resulted in a marked 
improvement of the area’s rates of disease and general wellbeing (Boston University School of 
Public Health). Not long after, in the United States, Lemuel Shattuck proposed a comprehensive plan 
for public health systems inspired by Chadwick’s efforts in Europe (Pizzi). Though not immediately 
influential, his proposals revolutionized public health systems in the country when they were 
eventually adopted (Committee for the Study of the Future of Public Health 61). Around that same 
time, Ellis Sylvester Chesbrough, another proponent of miasma theory, introduced sewage systems 
based on European models in Chicago, drastically improving public health in the city (Pizzi).  
Toward the end of the century, another prominent sanitarian by the name of Colonel George 
E. Waring overhauled New York City’s street cleaning and garbage disposal methods, transforming 
the city’s streets from some of the dirtiest to some of the cleanest in the world at the time (Pizzi). 
Waring also promoted his beliefs about “sewer gas” as a cause of disease, and, largely in an effort to 
curb yellow fever epidemics, he furthered the adoption of standard flush toilets and wide-ranging 
sewage systems throughout the United States and Cuba (Pizzi). Though the efforts of the 19th 
century sanitation reformers successfully reduced instances of many diseases, they made little 
progress against yellow fever. Despite following Waring’s advice to rid the city of filth and sewer 
gas, for example, yellow fever outbreaks persisted in Havana, Cuba (Pizzi). Major Walter Reed later 
proved that the disease was transmitted by mosquitos, delivering just one of several significant blows 
to miasma theory’s credibility (Pizzi).  
While investigating an 1854 cholera outbreak in London, physician John Snow observed that 
the mortality rate of persons consuming water from a particular water pump on Broad Street was 
notably higher than in other affected areas, and he convinced the locals to remove the pump handle 
(Halliday 1470). Snow attributed the subsequent reduction in cholera deaths to the removal of the 
water source (Halliday 1470). This implied that it was the water itself that had transported or caused 
the disease, not corrupted vapors. His conclusions were rejected, however, by a committee headed by 
William Farr and appointed to investigate Snow’s claims (Halliday 1471). The committee concluded: 
 
In explanation of the remarkable intensity of this outbreak [Broad Street Pump 
outbreak] within very definite limits, it has been suggested by Dr. Snow, that the real 
cause of whatever was peculiar in the case lay in the use of one particular well, 
situated at Broad Street in the middle of the district, and having (it was imagined) its 
waters contaminated with the rice-water evacuations of cholera patients. After careful 
inquiry, we see no reason to adopt this belief. We do not feel it established that the 
water was contaminated in the manner alleged; nor is there before us any sufficient 
evidence to show whether inhabitants of that district, drinking from that well, 
2
ESSAI, Vol. 17 [2019], Art. 31
https://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol17/iss1/31
102 
suffered in proportion more than other inhabitants of the district who drank from 
other sources (…) But, on the whole of evidence, it seems impossible to doubt that 
the influences, which determine in mass the geographical distribution of cholera in 
London, belong less to the water than to the air. (UCLA Department of 
Epidemiology, “Competing Theories of Cholera”) 
 
Undeterred, Snow published a paper in the British Medical Journal several years later again 
demonstrating a link between the consumption of sewage-contaminated water and high numbers of 
cholera deaths in a different area of London (Halliday 1470). However, his proposals were not 
widely accepted until Robert Koch’s 1883 discovery of Vibrio cholerae bacteria provided further 
support for them (Halliday 1469; UCLA Department of Epidemiology, “Prevailing Theories of 
Cholera”).  
Microbes were discovered in the 1600s by Dutchman Antony van Leeuwenhoek but had not 
yet been connected to disease (Yong 29-32). It was not until the mid-19th century that scientists 
began to speculate upon their role in illness. Around this time, French chemist Louis Pasteur 
established that bacteria could sour alcohol and spoil meat, leading him to propose that they might 
also be capable of causing disease (Yong 32). While studying illnesses affecting silkworms in 1865, 
he isolated eggs infected with microbes and subsequently stopped the conditions from spreading, 
thereby demonstrating that the microbes had likely caused the conditions (Yong 32). Elsewhere, the 
bacterium Bacillus anthracis had been observed in the tissues of animals affected by an epidemic of 
anthrax (Yong 32). In 1876, German physician Robert Koch began the first of a series of injections 
that would push this “germ theory” of disease into the limelight (Yong 32). He injected Bacillus 
anthracis into 20 successive generations of healthy mice, and every mouse died of anthrax (Yong 
32). In the decades that followed, scientists discovered bacterial causes for tuberculosis, typhoid, 
diphtheria, tetanus, bubonic plague, leprosy, and other diseases, firmly cementing germ theory as the 
more accurate theory of disease propagation (Yong 33). In light of germ theory, surgeons like Joseph 
Lister began sterilizing their instruments, equipment, and hands, reducing surgical complications 
from infection and still further demonstrating the theory’s accuracy (Yong 33).  
After decades of research into bacteria and other microbes, their ability to cause disease is 
now common knowledge. Acceptance of germ theory has led to even more advances in sanitation, 
life expectancy, and overall public wellbeing in the form of vaccines, antibiotics, modern food safety 
and hygiene practices, and other methods and technologies (Pizzi). While the theory of miasma may 
have eventually fallen to the wayside, its influence laid the groundwork for modern sanitation 
measures and helped to save lives during its time. 
 
 
  
 
Works Cited 
 
Boston University School of Public Health. “The Sanitary Idea (1850-1875).” A Brief History of 
Public Health, 2015, sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/MPH-
Modules/PH/PublicHealthHistory/publichealthhistory7.html. Accessed 29 April 2019. 
Committee for the Study of the Future of Public Health. The Future of Public Health. Washington, 
D.C., National Academy Press, 1988, 
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK218218/pdf/Bookshelf_NBK218218.pdf.  
Curtis, Valerie. “A Natural History of Hygiene.” Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 
11-14, 2007, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2542893/pdf/jidmm18011.pdf.  
3
Maestas: From Miasma to Microbe
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2019
103 
Halliday, Stephen. “Death and Miasma in Victorian London: An Obstinate Belief.” BMJ, 323:1469-
1471, 2001, DOI: 10.1136/bmj.323.7327.1469. 
Hardin Library for the Health Sciences. “The Black Death: The Plague, 1331-1770.” The University 
of Iowa History of Medicine Society, 2017, hosted.lib.uiowa.edu/histmed/plague/index.html. 
Accessed 29 April 2019. 
Jones, Lori. “The Diseased Landscape: Medieval and Early Modern Plaguescapes.” Landscapes, 
17:2, 108-123, 2016. DOI: 10.1080/14662035.2016.1251102. 
Karamanou, Marianna, George Panayiotakopoulos, Gregory Tsoucalas, Antonis A. Kousoulis, and 
George Androutsos. “From Miasmas to Germs: A Historical Approach to Theories of 
Infectious Disease Transmission.” Le Infezioni in Medicina, n. 1, 52-56, 2012, 
www.researchgate.net/profile/Antonis_Kousoulis/publication/223957556_From_miasmas_to
_germs_A_historical_approach_to_theories_of_infectious_disease_transmission/links/0fcfd5
05a01e81aa71000000.pdf.  
Nikolova, Lolita. “Miasma Theory of Disease.” Encyclopedia of Consumption and Waste: The Social 
Science of Garbage, vol. 1, SAGE, 2012, pp. 539-540,  
books.google.com/books?id=BFaB5xsGbaMC&pg=PA540&lpg=PA540&dq=effect+of+clea
nliness+measures+on+disease+miasma&source=bl&ots=tUFHQ2oNo1&sig=ACfU3U15AS
gz437J0_nqToKpOAceEcvwxg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj5gIP6r_fhAhUDna0KHSaB
BJMQ6AEwEHoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=effect%20of%20cleanliness%20measures%20o
n%20disease%20miasma&f=false 
Pizzi, Richard. “Apostles of Cleanliness.” mdd, vol. 5, no. 5, pp 51–55, 2002, 
pubs.acs.org/subscribe/archive/mdd/v05/i05/html/05ttl.html. Accessed 29 April 2019. 
Richards, Pat. “Infectious Disease in Cambridge: The Cambridge Isolation Hospital and Its 
Evolution.” Capturing Cambridge, 1991, capturingcambridge.org/wp-
content/uploads/2015/05/InfectiousDisease.pdf.  
Sterner, Carl. “A Brief History of Miasmic Theory.” 
carlsterner.com/research/files/History_of_Miasmic_Theory_2007.pdf.  
UCLA Department of Epidemiology. “Competing Theories of Cholera.” 
www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/choleratheories.html. Accessed 29 April 2019. 
UCLA Department of Epidemiology. “Prevailing Theories of Cholera.” 
www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/1859map/snowindex.html. Accessed 29 April 2019. 
Van der Eijk, Philip, editor. “Air, Miasma and Contagion in the Time of Hippocrates and the 
Survival of Miasmas in Post-Hippocratic Medicine (Rufus of Ephesus, Galen and 
Palladius).” Greek Medicine from Hippocrates to Galen: Selected Papers, by Jacques 
Jouanna and Neil Allies, Brill, Leiden; Boston, 2012, pp. 119–136. JSTOR, 
www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctt1w76vxr.12.  
Yong, Ed. I Contain Multitudes: The Microbes Within Us and a Grander View of Life. New York, 
HarperCollines, 2016. 
Zhu, Jian-ping. “Exploration of the Relationship between Geographical Environment and Human 
Diseases in Ancient China.” Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 31(4): 382-385, 2011, 
www.journaltcm.com/modules/Journal/contents/stories/114/22.pdf. 
 
4
ESSAI, Vol. 17 [2019], Art. 31
https://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol17/iss1/31


From Miasma to Microbe

Peretti, Marilyn

The Prairie Light Review 
Volume 42 Number 1 Article 7 
Fall 12-1-2019 
Since Beginning 
Marilyn Peretti 
College of DuPage 
Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.cod.edu/plr 
Recommended Citation 
Peretti, Marilyn (2019) "Since Beginning," The Prairie Light Review: Vol. 42 : No. 1 , Article 7. 
Available at: https://dc.cod.edu/plr/vol42/iss1/7 
This Artwork is brought to you for free and open access by the College Publications at DigitalCommons@COD. It 
has been accepted for inclusion in The Prairie Light Review by an authorized editor of DigitalCommons@COD. For 
more information, please contact orenick@cod.edu. 
Editorial Team
 Editor in Chief  
 -Eleanor Zilius 
 Production Editor 
 -Wren Dorris
 Marketing Editor 
 -Ronda Crawford 
 Assistant Editors 
 - Jolie Vega 
 - Olivia Voegtle 
 Faculty Advisor 
 -Adam Fotos
Since Beginning
Marilyn Peretti
Collage
1
Peretti: Since Beginning
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2019


Since Beginning

Wood, Kathi

The Prairie Light Review 
Volume 42 Number 1 Article 21 
Fall 12-1-2019 
Football Dreams 
Kathi Wood 
College of DuPage 
Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.cod.edu/plr 
Recommended Citation 
Wood, Kathi (2019) "Football Dreams," The Prairie Light Review: Vol. 42 : No. 1 , Article 21. 
Available at: https://dc.cod.edu/plr/vol42/iss1/21 
This Artwork is brought to you for free and open access by the College Publications at DigitalCommons@COD. It 
has been accepted for inclusion in The Prairie Light Review by an authorized editor of DigitalCommons@COD. For 
more information, please contact orenick@cod.edu. 
Football Dreams. Kathi Wood, Photography
17
1
Wood: Football Dreams
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2019


Football Dreams

Bell, Caroline

The Prairie Light Review 
Volume 42 Number 1 Article 39 
Fall 12-1-2019 
Trophy Wife 
Caroline Bell 
College of DuPage 
Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.cod.edu/plr 
Recommended Citation 
Bell, Caroline (2019) "Trophy Wife," The Prairie Light Review: Vol. 42 : No. 1 , Article 39. 
Available at: https://dc.cod.edu/plr/vol42/iss1/39 
This Artwork is brought to you for free and open access by the College Publications at DigitalCommons@COD. It 
has been accepted for inclusion in The Prairie Light Review by an authorized editor of DigitalCommons@COD. For 
more information, please contact orenick@cod.edu. 
Trophy Wife (above)
Caroline Bell,
Sculpture
Today at the Market  (at left)
Christine Cianciosi
Digital Artwork 33
1
Bell: Trophy Wife
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2019


Trophy Wife

Mack, James-Oliver

The Prairie Light Review 
Volume 42 Number 1 Article 47 
Fall 12-1-2019 
Consent 
James-Oliver Mack 
College of DuPage 
Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.cod.edu/plr 
Recommended Citation 
Mack, James-Oliver (2019) "Consent," The Prairie Light Review: Vol. 42 : No. 1 , Article 47. 
Available at: https://dc.cod.edu/plr/vol42/iss1/47 
This Selection is brought to you for free and open access by the College Publications at DigitalCommons@COD. It 
has been accepted for inclusion in The Prairie Light Review by an authorized editor of DigitalCommons@COD. For 
more information, please contact orenick@cod.edu. 
Consent
They did not tell us that their catcalls were really just compliments
That we were being oversensitive
They did not have to
We told each other these things
Not because we believed them
But rather because we didn’t
We knew that their jabs were predatory
We kept it to ourselves
We felt the phantom sensations of  hands 
Stroking, touching, searching, finding
They did not tell us that we were just asking to be groped with our    
   choice in clothing
That we shouldn’t have been teasing if  we didn’t want to have our ass 
   slapped
They did not have to
We told each other these things
Not because it was true
But rather because it wasn’t
We knew we did not consent
We kept it to ourselves
We experienced the spectral conversation with an authority figure
Disparaging, judging, blaming, belittling
They did not tell us that it was our fault for being too drunk or too high
That it was their right as our significant other
They did not have to
We told ourselves these things
Not because we felt this way
But rather because we didn’t
We knew that it was rape
We kept it to ourselves
We lived the illusory court case
Probing, shaming, besmirching, wilting
James-Oliver Mack
40
1
Mack: Consent
Published by DigitalCommons@COD, 2019


College of DuPage

Not a member yet

Dr. Brian Caputo reads selections from The Quest for Peace and Justice, Nobel Peace Prize Lecture by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

Shaheen Chowdhury reads Let It Be Known, I Am Woman, and Advice to the Youth, by Margaret Burroughs and Ain\u27t I a Woman? by Sojourner Truth