Open Research Exeter - University of Exeter
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Public trust in the regulation of facial recognition technology: evidence from policy and governance frameworks in the United Kingdom
No full textThe governance of artificial intelligence (AI) has become a pressing policy priority, emphasising the urgency of implementing regulatory frameworks to ensure the responsible and ethical deployment of AI. This thesis examines the emerging policy and regulatory challenges arising from the rapid development of AI, with a particular focus on facial recognition technology (FRT) as a prominent form of AI-powered biometrics. Following the COVID-19 pandemic, various types of FRT were introduced into public services and expanded into public spaces, with their widespread adoption often justified under the rubric of public safety. However, the proliferation of biometric recognition systems, largely driven by governments that are the primary users of AI-powered surveillance technologies, is raising significant ethical, social and regulatory concerns. Emerging challenges include erosion of civil liberties, function creep, mass surveillance, privacy infringement and algorithmic bias, as well as concerns about misidentification due to inaccuracy and racial profiling. Recently, the widespread adoption of FRT has intensified debate about the lack of governmental oversight and regulatory lacuna in what has been described as a “regulatory Wild West.” To address these issues, this thesis adopts a trust-based approach to governing FRT within theoretical frameworks of the public policy and trust perspectives.
This thesis primarily focuses on the state use and regulation of FRT in the United Kingdom (UK). It examines how public perceptions of FRT in the UK influence preferences for its regulation and investigates which policy changes could enhance public trust in its use in public spaces. Historically, the UK has served as an endemic case, given its long-standing history of surveillance practices since the 1950s, alongside its strong normative and cultural commitments to civil liberties and privacy. Several policy networks, particularly epistemic communities, have stressed the fragmented, inconsistent and overlapping regulatory framework for certain FRT implementations in the UK. Nevertheless, recent policies signal the government's urge to expand the deployment of FRT in police live facial recognition (LFR) operations, despite a lack of clear governance oversight. To scrutinise this complex policy issue, this thesis employs a mixed-methods research approach structured using an exploratory sequential design. It incorporates data from thirty-two expert interviews and online surveys to thoroughly analyse public perceptions of FRT in the UK. Furthermore, this study analyses two case studies on the government's implementation of FRT, with a specific focus on the Metropolitan Police Service's use of LFR from 2016 to 2024, as well as the automated facial recognition technology (AFRT) utilisation of passport eGates at London Heathrow Airport. These selected cases demonstrate the widespread adoption and implementation of FRT in various public settings across the UK, which also considers diverse regulatory approaches to address existing gaps, ranging from unified technology-agnostic regulations to context-specific tailored regulations. Additionally, this study examines different regulatory policies such as responsive regulation, principle-based regulation, risk-based regulation, agile regulation, and regulation inside government to ensure the responsible implementation of FRT throughout the UK.
Fundamentally, the study found that while public awareness of FRT is high, support for it varies depending on the context in which it is used. Although the public recognised the potential benefits of FRT in enhanced security, crime prevention and increased efficiency in ID verification, there were widespread concerns about privacy infringement, government overreach and a lack of oversight. The findings from the expert interviews also underscore the importance of institutional trust in regulating FRT, which is maintained through governance oversight based on transparency, competence-based oversight and stakeholder participation. These findings also suggest that implementing ex-ante and ex-post policies are crucial for building trust and ensuring the responsible use of FRT in public spaces. Notably, survey results showed strong public support for strengthening the UK's regulatory framework for FRT, with the vast majority of respondents favouring comprehensive government regulation over voluntary measures.
Taken together, this thesis contributes to addressing the regulatory gap in the UK's FRT policy frameworks by examining governance mechanisms that could enhance public trust in the deployment of FRT in the UK. The existing literature predominantly examines public opinion and attitudes towards FRT; however, empirical insights into public perceptions of, and trust in, FRT regulation remain limited. To address this gap, this study analyses public perceptions of FRT, focusing specifically on public trust in regulatory regimes and policies, alongside public regulatory preferences concerning FRT. Considering the empirical evidence presented, the conclusion section outlines specific policy recommendations and practical implications for addressing the regulatory gaps in UK surveillance policies. This thesis, therefore, concludes that public trust is the key factor in both the adoption and regulation of FRT.</p
A Corpus Study of Linking Adverbials in EFL Learners’ Writing
No full textThe current study focused on a corpus-based approach to examine the variation of linking adverbials used by B1, B2, and C1 level EFL Saudi learners. It investigated the frequency, position, and forms of linking adverbials across different EFL proficiency levels. Most previous work on linking adverbials in written essays has concentrated on the differences between native and non- native speakers in using the linking adverbials not on the development of linking adverbials among the proficiency levels.
The design and methods of this study were primarily quantitative and sought to identify the number of linking adverbials occurrences in the learner corpus. A qualitative approach was used to provide a more detailed analysis of the linking adverbials in the context, and to address the issue of the syntactic forms of the target linking adverbials by manual inspection of the concordance lines. EFCAMDAT (EF Cambridge Open Language Database) was sampled to include data from B1 level to C1 levels containing texts written by EFL Saudi Arabian students which are 7023 texts.
Mixed-effects models as a statistical test used to examine the difference between the frequency of the linking adverbials in general. The results show that there is no significant difference between the overall frequency of use of linking adverbials across the proficiency levels. However, fine- grained analysis of the linking adverbials illustrated that the low-level learners used spoken like linkers in their written texts. Conversely, the advanced learners demonstrated a preference for linking adverbials more frequently found in academic writing, as evidenced by comparisons with the COCA native English corpus. However, the data revealed that there was no significant relationship between the spoken style of linking adverbials and the proficiency of the learners. As learners increased their proficiency, their use of linking adverbials does not become written in style.
Furthermore, the findings related to the position of the linking adverbials revealed that there was a lack of variation across proficiency levels, indicating a stable pattern in their usage. This consistency suggests that learners across different proficiency levels apply similar approaches to placing linking adverbials in their writing. The results also indicated that Saudi EFL learners with different proficiency levels showed different preferences for the grammatical forms of linking adverbials used in their written texts. These differences appeared in single adverb, prepositional phrase and adverb phrase categories. Overall, these insights have valuable implications for creating instructional materials aimed at teaching linking adverbials in writing.</p
Evaluation of the pollution pressures posed by groups of chemicals on British riverine invertebrate populations
No full textGlobally, rivers receive a diverse range of chemicals, including metals, pesticides, persistent organic pollutants, petrochemicals, human and veterinary pharmaceuticals and personal care products. However, the extent to which these different chemical groups affect riverine invertebrate communities is not well defined. Here we set out to evaluate the available evidence for associations between British riverine invertebrate communities and different chemical groups (and individual members of these chemical groups). Our assessment comprised three elements, (i) an evaluation of whether environmental concentrations of these chemicals exceed the lowest effect concentrations (ECs) based on laboratory tests, (ii) an assessment of associations between chemical groups and changes in British riverine invertebrate communities using the existing published literature, and (iii) calculated potential risk of toxicity of the chemical groups to invertebrates based on measured exposures (Environmental Agency monitoring data) and laboratory-based measurements of the lethal concentration required to kill half of the tested population (LC50). Our conclusions indicate that metal and pesticide pollutants (including the veterinary medicine fipronil) are of greatest concern for British riverine invertebrate communities. Petrochemicals were also of potential concern, however, risk calculations indicate this risk is lower than that for metals and pesticides. All other chemical groups assessed appeared to be of relatively low risk to British riverine invertebrates based on the available information. However, the concentrations of some pharmaceuticals and personal care products in British rivers exceeded the lowest ECs for some invertebrate species and require further investigation. Given the widespread concern regarding declines in freshwater invertebrates, studies on chemical impacts on invertebrate populations in British rivers are surprisingly limited and further targeted studies are warranted.</p
Peripheral electricity generation in Southern Africa: shifting regional landscapes
No full textSouth Africa has been the primary supplier of electricity to the Southern African region for the past few decades, using coal-fired power stations for generation. As South Africa’s lack of investment in renewables has led to a declining power supply and worsening blackouts (Reuters 2023), neighbouring countries have forged ahead in generating energy from renewable technologies, effectively ‘leapfrogging’ over a reliance on fossil fuels (Hastie 2024 Geo: Geogr. Environ. 11 e00136). There is a growing demand for electricity in the countries neighbouring South Africa: Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Eswatini and Lesotho, due to programmes of electrification for citizens as well as economic growth. Drawing on the specific case studies of Namibia and Eswatini, plus document analysis from the region, the paper makes two key contributions. Firstly, that the rapidly shifting electricity landscape in Southern Africa is changing the economic dynamics of the region, with an impact on regional geo-politics, introducing the term ‘peripheral electricity generation’ to characterise this process. Secondly, that whilst this process has the potential to bring about opportunity for the region, attention must be paid to the risks of neocolonialism and extractivism with energy investments to avoid perpetuating uneven development. The findings have wide ranging implications for research and for understanding the future of changing relations within the Southern African Development Region.</p
Trap-Assisted Transport and Neuromorphic Plasticity in Lead-Free 2D Perovskites PEA<sub>2</sub>SnI<sub>4</sub>
No full textTin-based perovskites offer one of the most viable sustainable alternatives to their lead counterparts, combining comparable band structures with strong visible-light absorption and favorable charge transport. Most studies have focused on thin films, where grain boundaries dominate charge transport, and the large surface area accelerates the oxidation of tin, obscuring the intrinsic properties of the material. Here, single crystals of phenethylammonium tin iodide (PEA2SnI4) are investigated, isolating their fundamental optoelectronic response from film-related artefacts. It is found that air and light exposure primarily affect surface layers, with partial recovery achievable through exfoliation. Photodetectors fabricated from single crystals exhibit a photoresponsivity of ≈60 A W−1 under low-intensity 650 nm illumination, with photocurrent scaling quadratically with bias in a space charge-limited current regime, and transport displaying a transition from thermal excitation to phonon scattering at 225 K. Time-resolved photocurrent measurements further reveal prolonged decay dynamics and cumulative pulse responses, characteristic of short-term synaptic plasticity such as temporal integration and voltage-modulated persistence. These findings establish PEA2SnI4 single crystals as a benchmark for understanding degradation and transport in lead-free perovskites, while positioning them as a viable materials platform for neuromorphic vision and adaptive optoelectronics.</p
Music as autistic sense-making: toward an enactive framework of neuro-affirming music therapy
No full textMusic therapy for autism has historically been guided by a “pathology paradigm” that aims to normalize autistic people in line with neuronormativity. The neurodiversity movement has initiated a paradigm shift towards more neuro-affirming practices. However, music therapy would benefit from a more robust theoretical grounding to guide this neuro-affirming transition. We address this gap by putting forward an enactive account of autistic musical engagement—grounded in the neurodiversity paradigm—that avoids pathological framing. Drawing on first-person reports from recent qualitative studies, we discuss how autistic people use music in everyday life for emotional regulation, identity construction, and social connection, while also noting how music can sometimes clash with autistic sensory sensitivities and agency. From this enactive perspective, autistic styles of musical engagement are revealed not as a set of symptoms to be managed but as vital dimensions of sense-making. We conclude by deriving some core principles to guide the development of neuro-affirming music therapies and inclusive live music events, creating spaces for autistic flourishing.</p
Justice for children with SEND & neurodivergence
No full textThe report is based on an independent review into how the current system can fail to prevent children with special educational needs or disabilities (SEND) and neurodivergence from unnecessarily entering into the justice system, how they are dealt with once in the system, what happens when they leave the justice system and how this parlous situation can be cost-effectively dealt with and increase the likelihood that children with SEND or neurodivergence who commit crime go on to become well-functioning, law-abiding adults.</p
Ontologically challenging psychedelic experiences: Considerations for managing associated distress
No full textPsychedelic substances have been increasingly recognised for their potential in treating various mental health conditions, yet they can also induce what we call ontologically challenging psychedelic experiences (OCPEs), a concept developed in our research to describe experiences that profoundly disrupt an individual’s sense of self, reality, and existence. We present OCPEs not as a diagnostic category but as a phenomenological and harm reduction perspective on certain destabilising psychedelic experiences.
While some individuals integrate OCPEs with ease, others struggle with ontological instability, existential distress, and impairments that persist long after acute effects. Importantly, ontological challenges are not always negative: for many, when they feel adequately resourced, they form part of the therapeutic mechanism and are a valued opportunity for personal development and growth. Drawing on our qualitative studies alongside other psychological research, we examine the phenomenology of OCPEs and their challenging aftermath, as well as strategies that may help facilitate recovery and integration. Grounding techniques, cognitive (re)framing, and supportive structures are discussed as potentially beneficial approaches and resources.
Finally, we outline ethical and practical implications for clinical and harm reduction practice. We highlight the limits of informed consent in psychedelic therapy and argue for the value of preparation and post-experience support that is attuned to ontological disruptions. As empirical evidence remains limited, further research is needed to refine best practices. The development of an ethically responsible approach, informed by the phenomenology of OCPEs, can help maximise benefits of psychedelic substances while minimising long-term harm.</p
Examining the impact of gestational diabetes genetic susceptibility variants on maternal glucose levels during and post pregnancy
No full textAim Genetic variants associated with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM, n=14 SNPs) were recently classified into two groups: type 2 diabetes predominant effects (Class-T, three SNPs) and GDM-predominant effects (Class-G, eight SNPs; three SNPs unclassified). We aimed to compare the effects of GDM-associated variants on glucose levels (fasting glucose and 2-hour post-OGTT) measured during versus post pregnancy.Research design and Methods We calculated genetic scores (GS) by class (T_GS and G_GS) and overall (All_GS) in 10 225 pregnant women and 4763 women post pregnancy (mean 10.5 years post pregnancy) from eight datasets representing four ancestrally-diverse cohorts: Exeter Family Study of Childhood Health, Genetics of Glucose Regulation in Gestation and Growth, Hyperglycaemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome, and Finnish Gestational Diabetes. We used linear regression models adjusted for ancestry principal components to investigate associations between standardized GS and glucose levels during or post pregnancy. Analyses were performed separately in each dataset and then combined using inverse-variance weighted random-effects meta-analyses.Results All_GS was associated with fasting glucose both during and post pregnancy (β (95% CI), in mmol/L per 1 SD higher GS=0.06 (0.04 to 0.08) during vs 0.06 (0.04 to 0.07) post pregnancy). All_GS was also associated with 2-hour post-OGTT glucose levels during pregnancy but not after (0.10 (0.04 to 0.15) during vs 0.01 (−0.04 to 0.07) post pregnancy). Both G_GS and T_GS showed consistent associations with fasting glucose during and post pregnancy (0.06 (0.04 to 0.08) during and 0.05 (0.03 to 0.07) post pregnancy for G_GS; 0.02 (0.01 to 0.02) during and 0.02 (−0.001; 0.05) post pregnancy for T_GS). G_GS showed weak evidence of association with 2-hour glucose levels during pregnancy (0.06 (−0.002 to 0.11)) and no association with 2-hour glucose levels post pregnancy (−0.03 (−0.08 to 0.03)). However, T_GS was associated with 2-hour glucose during pregnancy and post pregnancy (0.10 (0.04 to 0.16) and 0.06 (0.01 to 0.12)).Conclusion Consistent associations with fasting glucose levels during and after pregnancy may suggest that biological pathways underlying GDM genetic susceptibility to fasting hyperglycemia are not pregnancy specific. However, the results for All_GS and 2-hour glucose provide evidence that some genetic associations with postprandial glucose may be stronger in pregnancy and should be followed up in larger samples.</p
How well are aerosol–cloud interactions represented in climate models? – Part 2: Isolating the aerosol impact on clouds following the 2014–2015 Holuhraun eruption
No full textAerosols significantly influence Earth’s radiative balance, yet considerable uncertainty exists in the underpinning mechanisms, particularly those involving clouds. Aerosol–cloud interactions (ACIs) are the most uncertain element in anthropogenic radiative forcing, hampering our ability to constrain Earth’s climate sensitivity and understand future climate change. The 2014–2015 Holuhraun volcanic eruption in Iceland released sulfur dioxide (SO2) into the lower troposphere on a level comparable to continental-scale emissions. The resultant volcanic plume across an often near-pristine region of the northern North Atlantic Ocean presents an ideal opportunistic experiment to explore ACI representation within general circulation models (GCMs). We present Part 2 of a two-part AeroCom (Aerosol Comparisons between Observations and Models) Phase III inter-model comparison study that utilises satellite remote sensing observations to assess modelled cloud responses to the Holuhraun attributed volcanic aerosol within eight state-of-the-art GCMs during September and October 2014. We isolate the aerosol effect from meteorological variability and find that the GCMs – particularly their multi-model ensemble response – adeptly capture the observed cloud microphysical changes associated with the ACI first indirect effect (i.e. Twomey effect). Meanwhile, a clear divergence exists in the GCM responses of large-scale cloud properties, namely cloud liquid water content, expected from the precipitation suppression mechanism of the ACI second indirect effect (i.e. rapid adjustments). We attribute this to limitations and differences in their autoconversion schemes under high aerosol loading, specifically in sub-grid-variability representations. Finally, our multi-model ensemble estimates that Holuhraun had a global radiative forcing of −0.11 ± 0.04 Wm−2across September and October 2014.</p