Ruch Prawniczy, Ekonomiczny i Socjologiczny
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Przestępstwo uchylania się od wykonania orzeczonego przez sąd środka kompensacyjnego jako instrument wsparcia pokrzywdzonego: uwagi na tle porządków prawnych wybranych państw europejskich
Get PDFThe basic pillars of restorative justice include the victim’s right to compensation and the perpetra-tor’s obligation to repair the damage caused, which should aim at making the perpetrator aware of their guilt and understanding the consequences of the crime. A practical dimension of applying restorative justice may therefore be financial restitution for the aggrieved party. In the Polish legal system, the legislator defined the provision of Article 244c of the Penal Code, which entered into force on 1 October 2023, as one of the manifestations of restorative justice. The study aims to assess the new regulation in the Polish legal system regarding the crime of evading the execu-tion of a compensatory measure ordered by the court as an instrument to support the aggrieved party in obtaining compensation. To this end, the authors identify the reasons for introducing the discussed standard and analyse it. The article uses dogmatic and comparative law methods. The most important conclusion from the analysis is the fact that the adopted solution improves the actual situation of the aggrieved party, who has received an important instrument to persuade the perpetrator to fulfil their obligation when they evade the execution of a compensatory or exemplary measure ordered by the court. The article also includes de lege lata observations and de lege ferenda postulates related to the regulation of Article 244c of the Penal Code and presents an evaluation of this regulation in the context of the legal orders of selected European countries.Do podstawowych filarów sprawiedliwości naprawczej należą prawo ofiary do rekompensaty, a także zobowiązanie sprawcy do naprawienia wyrządzonej szkody, co powinno zmierzać do uświadomienia sprawcy jego winy i zrozumienia przez niego skutków przestępstwa. Praktycznym wymiarem stosowania sprawiedliwości naprawczej może być więc restytucja finansowa dla po-krzywdzonego. W polskim porządku prawnym ustawodawca jako jeden z przejawów sprawiedliwości naprawczej określił przepis art. 244c Kodeksu karnego, który wszedł w życie 1 października 2023 r. Celem opracowania jest ocena nowej regulacji w polskim porządku prawnym, dotyczącej przestępstwa uchylania się od wykonania orzeczonego przez sąd środka kompensacyjnego jako instrumentu wsparcia pokrzywdzonego w uzyskaniu kompensaty. W tym celu autorzy wskazali przyczyny wprowadzenia omawianej normy oraz dokonali jej analizy. W opracowaniu zostały wykorzystane metody dogmatyczna oraz prawnoporównawcza. Najważniejszym wnioskiem z dokonanej analizy jest fakt, że przyjęte rozwiązanie poprawia faktyczną sytuację pokrzywdzonego, który otrzymał istotny instrument skłonienia sprawcy do wykonania obowiązku w sytuacji uchy-lania się przez niego od wykonania orzeczonego przez sąd środka kompensacyjnego albo nawiązki. W artykule ujęte zostały także postulaty de lege lata oraz postulaty de lege ferenda związane z regulacją art. 244c k.k. oraz przedstawiona została jej ocena na tle porządków prawnych wybranych państw europejskich
Stan wyższej konieczności przy przekraczaniu polskiej granicy
Get PDFThe paper addresses the criminal law issue of the exclusion of unlawfulness or culpability of behaviour in cases of illegal border crossing, as regulated in Polish law under Article 264 § 2 of the Criminal Code and Article 49a of the Petty Offenses Code, through the application of the state of necessity. The analysis is conducted in the context of the ongoing immigration crisis on the Polish-Belarusian border since 2021. The initial section provides a general discussion on the application of the state of necessity to situations involving border crossings without formal authorization, with particular consideration given to the object of protection of the relevant regulations and the balance between sacrificed and preserved goods. The paper favourably evaluates recent literature suggesting that individuals crossing the border from Belarus into Poland may have acted under a state of necessity, thereby excluding the unlawfulness of their behaviour. Subsequent sections consider more specific issues, including the problem of perpetrators contributing to the creation of the danger and the legalization of the threat through the Polish Government’s decision to strengthen the border protection infrastructure along the Polish-Belarusian border, aimed at preventing its crossing at unauthorized points. The analysis concludes that these issues do not necessarily preclude the application of the state of necessity to various forms of illegal border crossing. However, it identifies a need to examine the differentiation – or lack thereof – between the internal and external borders of the European Union concerning their protection through criminal law measures.Przedmiotem opracowania jest prawnokarna problematyka wyłączenia bezprawności lub zawinienia zachowania w przypadku czynu zabronionego nielegalnego przekroczenia granicy, stypizowanego w art. 264 § 2 Kodeksu karnego oraz art. 49a Kodeksu wykroczeń przez odwołanie się do stany wyższej konieczności, analizowana w kontekście trwającego od 2021 r. kryzysu imigracyjnego na granicy polsko-białoruskiej. W pierwszej części ogólnie omówiono zastosowanie tej instytucji do sytuacji przekroczenia granicy mimo braku formalnych ku temu uprawnień, w szczególności z uwzględnieniem przedmiotu ochrony ww. regulacji oraz wagi dóbr – poświęcanego i ratowanego. Aprobatywnie oceniono przy tym prezentowany w literaturze pogląd, że w wybranych sytuacjach, w których dochodziło ostatnio do przekraczania granicy polskiej od strony białoruskiej, sprawcy działali właśnie w stanie wyższej konieczności, i to co do zasady w formie, w której wyłącza on bezprawność zachowania. Na tym tle w kolejnych częściach artykułu rozważono bardziej szczegółowe zagadnienia, a mianowicie problem ewentualnego przyczynienia się sprawców do powstania zagrożenia oraz legalizacji zagrożenia przez podjęcie przez Rząd Polski decyzji o wzmocnieniu urządzeń chroniących granicę polsko-białoruską w celu uniemożliwienia jej przekroczenia w miejscach do tego nieprzeznaczonych. W podsumowaniu wskazano, że problemy te nie stoją jednak na przeszkodzie zastosowaniu stanu wyższej konieczności do różnych form, w jakich do nielegalnego przekroczenia granicy dochodziło, niemniej weryfikacji poddać należy brak rozróżnienia między granicą wewnętrzną Unii Europejskiej i granicą zewnętrzną na poziomie ich karnoprawnej ochrony
Disentangling ESG: Environmental, social and governance ratings and financial performance of Polish listed companies
Get PDFSocially responsible investments are a significant element of the global capital market and are becoming increasingly important also in the eyes of Polish investors. ESG ratings are a crucial decisive criterion, as they provide information on the corporate governance (G), and social (S) and environmental (E) activities, of companies. Even though the abovementioned areas differ significantly, the use of ESG ratings by investors is often narrowed down to the total ESG score. Additionally, the literature does not provide unambiguous results on whether the impact of total score as well as the individual pillars of E, S and G on the accounting-based financial performance of companies is statistically significant, and positive or negative. Sparse academic studies concentrate mainly on highly developed markets and accounting-based measures of profitability, leaving aside emerging markets, like Poland, and the other main characteristics of financial performance, like liquidity, efficiency, or leverage. The aim of this paper is therefore to fill the above gap by identifying the dependence of ratings in E, S and G areas and the accounting-based financial performance of companies listed on the Warsaw Stock Exchange. Selected financial parameters and company quotations were taken from the Notoria Serwis SA database, while data on ESG ratings from Refinitiv Eikon were used to perform correlation analysis. The analysis covers the years 2013–2022. The findings indicate a significant positive bi-directional impact of corporate governance (G) and efficiency, as well as of controversies score and efficiency. A linkage has also been revealed between controversies score and profitability. However, the hypothesis of an unequivocally positive impact of ESG factors on financial results, or conversely of financial results on ESG aspects, should be rejected.Socially responsible investments are a significant element of the global capital market and are becoming increasingly important also in the eyes of Polish investors. ESG ratings are a crucial decisive criterion, as they provide information on the corporate governance (G), and social (S) and environmental (E) activities, of companies. Even though the abovementioned areas differ significantly, the use of ESG ratings by investors is often narrowed down to the total ESG score. Additionally, the literature does not provide unambiguous results on whether the impact of total score as well as the individual pillars of E, S and G on the accounting-based financial performance of companies is statistically significant, and positive or negative. Sparse academic studies concentrate mainly on highly developed markets and accounting-based measures of profitability, leaving aside emerging markets, like Poland, and the other main characteristics of financial performance, like liquidity, efficiency, or leverage. The aim of this paper is therefore to fill the above gap by identifying the dependence of ratings in E, S and G areas and the accounting-based financial performance of companies listed on the Warsaw Stock Exchange. Selected financial parameters and company quotations were taken from the Notoria Serwis SA database, while data on ESG ratings from Refinitiv Eikon were used to perform correlation analysis. The analysis covers the years 2013–2022. The findings indicate a significant positive bi-directional impact of corporate governance (G) and efficiency, as well as of controversies score and efficiency. A linkage has also been revealed between controversies score and profitability. However, the hypothesis of an unequivocally positive impact of ESG factors on financial results, or conversely of financial results on ESG aspects, should be rejected
The law applicable to claims for breach of duty of care by foreign controlling companies and their directors under EU law
Get PDFThe research presented in the article aims to identify the criteria for determining the law applicable to third party claims against board members and parent companies for non-contractual obligations. The article examines the provisions of EU law and the case law of the Courts of Justice on the basis of the dogmatic method, combined with elements assessing the economic efficiency of the identified approaches. Research on this topic is prompted by the absence of an adequate legal framework determining the qualification of the claims in question. The Rome II Regulation only provides for the exclusion of company law claims from its scope. However, this exclusion does not provide criteria for determining which claims fall under company law. This issue was recently addressed by the Court of Justice in the case of BMA AG, C-498/20, concerning the scope of the law applicable to the liability of a German company for breach of the general duty of care towards the creditors of a Dutch subsidiary. The Court held that such a claim should be classified as lex delicti. The findings of the research suggest that the Court of Justice has not offered clear criteria that would enable national authorities to distinguish between corporate and tort claims. Meanwhile, it seems that there are more arguments in favour of the corporate nature of claims arising from decisions relating to the management of the company’s assets.The research presented in the article aims to identify the criteria for determining the law applicable to third party claims against board members and parent companies for non-contractual obligations. The article examines the provisions of EU law and the case law of the Courts of Justice on the basis of the dogmatic method, combined with elements assessing the economic efficiency of the identified approaches. Research on this topic is prompted by the absence of an adequate legal framework determining the qualification of the claims in question. The Rome II Regulation only provides for the exclusion of company law claims from its scope. However, this exclusion does not provide criteria for determining which claims fall under company law. This issue was recently addressed by the Court of Justice in the case of BMA AG, C-498/20, concerning the scope of the law applicable to the liability of a German company for breach of the general duty of care towards the creditors of a Dutch subsidiary. The Court held that such a claim should be classified as lex delicti. The findings of the research suggest that the Court of Justice has not offered clear criteria that would enable national authorities to distinguish between corporate and tort claims. Meanwhile, it seems that there are more arguments in favour of the corporate nature of claims arising from decisions relating to the management of the company’s assets
The Russian invasion of Ukraine: An anti-constitutional moment in international law?
Get PDFThe Russian invasion of Ukraine was the first open and blatant aggression against a sovereign neighbour state in Europe since 1945. Does this war have systemic significance for the legal order as a whole? The contribution singles out legal trends that relate to three fundamental principles of the current international legal order: peace, people (humanity), and the planet. My thesis is that, although Russia has breached a fundamental, even constitutional, principle of international law, namely the prohibition of inter-state military force, this breach has productively – though unintentionally – boosted, firstly, a modest reform of the UN architecture and, secondly, a further humanization of international law. A third trend is the ‘greening’ of the law surrounding war and of the legal status of the individual. These are important positive developments that go to the very heart of international law. With some optimism, the ‘Ukraine moment’ can therefore be seen not only as an anti-constitutional, but at the same time also as a constitutional moment.The Russian invasion of Ukraine was the first open and blatant aggression against a sovereign neighbour state in Europe since 1945. Does this war have systemic significance for the legal order as a whole? The contribution singles out legal trends that relate to three fundamental principles of the current international legal order: peace, people (humanity), and the planet. My thesis is that, although Russia has breached a fundamental, even constitutional, principle of international law, namely the prohibition of inter-state military force, this breach has productively – though unintentionally – boosted, firstly, a modest reform of the UN architecture and, secondly, a further humanization of international law. A third trend is the ‘greening’ of the law surrounding war and of the legal status of the individual. These are important positive developments that go to the very heart of international law. With some optimism, the ‘Ukraine moment’ can therefore be seen not only as an anti-constitutional, but at the same time also as a constitutional moment
Umowy w globalnych łańcuchach wartości w kontekście klauzul społecznej odpowiedzialności biznesu
Get PDFThis paper aims to identify the role of contracts and the contractualization of corporate social responsibility (CSR) in the context of global value chains (GVCs). The key research problem concerns how contracts affect GVCs and how they are used to promote CSR. To conduct the research, literature from the fields of legal, political and economic sciences was analysed alongside model contracts and corporate policies of multinational enterprises. This allowed for an analysis of the chain structure, the role of lead firms, and the contractual relationship within GVCs. The study found that contracts have several roles. Contracts govern the chains and regulate business relationships, optimize costs and minimize risks. Meanwhile, they create independent legal regimes, thus eliminating issues of fairness and the redistributive functions of private law from contractual relationships. This is evident in the practice of lead firms implementing CSR through sustainability clauses in contracts. CSR clauses allow the costs and liability for negative externalities to be transferred to weaker actors. The paper proposes an analysis of individual contracts in the context of the whole chain, as this approach allows for a better understanding of both direct and indirect business relationships and facilitates a proportionate distribution of costs and responsibilities between the chain participants. The paper fills a gap in the Polish literature by focusing on the role of contract law in GVCs. The findings are relevant for understanding how GVCs function and how contracts shape business relationships and practices related to the implementation of CSR.Celem artykułu jest określenie roli umów i kontraktualizacji społecznej odpowiedzialności biznesu (CSR) w kontekście globalnych łańcuchów wartości. Kluczowym problemem badawczym jest zrozumienie, jak umowy wpływają na funkcjonowanie łańcuchów i jak wykorzystuje się je do promowania CSR. Do przeprowadzenia badań wykorzystano literaturę z zakresu nauk prawnych, politycznych i ekonomicznych. Dodatkowo wykorzystano źródła w postaci wzorów umów i polityk korporacyjnych przedsiębiorstw międzynarodowych. Pozwoliło to na przeanalizowanie struktury łańcucha, konsekwencji istnienia wiodących przedsiębiorstw i kształtu relacji umownej w łańcuchach. Ustalono, że umowy pełnią kilka ról. Przede wszystkim są narzędziem do organizacji i zarządzania łańcuchami; umowy regulują relacje biznesowe, optymalizują koszty i minimalizują ryzyko funkcjonowania łańcuchów. Jednocześnie tworzą one niezależne reżimy prawne, co pozwala na eliminowanie kwestii sprawiedliwości i równości oraz funkcji redystrybucyjnych prawa prywatnego w relacjach umownych. Wynika to zasadniczo z istnienia wiodących przedsiębiorstw i wykorzystywania przez nie zjawiska nierówności w łańcuchach. Jest to widoczne w kontraktualizacji CSR przez szczególne klauzule umowne. Klauzule CSR pozwalają na przenoszenie na podmioty słabsze kosztów i odpowiedzialności za negatywne efekty zewnętrzne. W artykule proponuje się analizę poszczególnych umów w kontekście całego łańcucha. Pozwalałoby to na lepsze zrozumienie relacji pośrednich i bezpośrednich oraz proporcjonalne rozkładanie kosztów i odpowiedzialności między podmiotami w łańcuchu. Na taką konstrukcję pozwala m.in. implementowanie samoregulacji przedsiębiorstw międzynarodowych do relacji umownej. Artykuł wypełnia lukę w polskim piśmiennictwie, koncentrując się na roli prawa prywatnego w łańcuchach, zwłaszcza w kontekście umów. Ustalenia tej pracy mają znaczenie dla zrozumienia funkcjonowania łańcuchów i roli umów w kształtowaniu relacji biznesowych i praktyk handlowych związanych z implementacją CSR
Finansowe instrumenty wsparcia przemysłu czystych technologii w USA i UE. Na drodze od konkurencji do interwencjonizmu państwowego
Get PDFIn recent years, two phenomena have significantly affected the traditional concept of industrial policy in both the US and the EU: the rapid expansion of China and external shocks such as the COVID-19 pandemic and the war in Ukraine. In response to the revealed dependence on Asian suppliers, both these global leaders have officially initiated discussion on the use of protectionist and interventionist instruments. The purpose of this article is to identify similarities and differences in the tools proposed by the US and the EU aimed at encouraging companies to invest in clean technologies, and to examine the channels through which these tools impact international competition. Accordingly, comparative analyses were conducted of US and EU legal acts and policy documents, supplemented by available reports and preliminary studies prepared by financial and consulting institutions. The findings indicate that the objectives, scope, and financial tools for conducting industrial policy have changed significantly – new subsidy instruments have been developed in the US, in many cases discriminatory towards third-party partners, while the previously restrictive rules for supporting domestic entrepreneurs in the EU have been substantially relaxed.W ostatnich latach wystąpiły dwa zjawiska istotnie wpływające na dotychczasową koncepcję polityki przemysłowej zarówno w USA, jak i w UE: szybka ekspansja Chin oraz zewnętrzne szoki takie jak pandemia COVID-19 oraz wojna w Ukrainie. Na fali ujawnionego uzależnienia od dostawców azjatyckich w UE oraz w USA otwarto oficjalnie dyskusję na temat instrumentów zarówno protekcjonistycznych, jak i interwencjonistycznych. Celem niniejszego artykułu jest zidentyfikowanie podobieństw i różnic w narzędziach proponowanych przez USA i UE ukierunkowanych na zachęcanie przedsiębiorstw do inwestycji w czyste technologie oraz określenie kanałów wpływu na konkurencję na rynku międzynarodowym. W związku z tym dokonano analiz komparatystycznych źródłowych aktów prawa amerykańskiego i unijnego oraz dokumentów programowych USA i UE, a także dostępnych raportów i wstępnych opracowań instytucji finansowych i konsultingowych. Zrealizowane badanie pozwoliło stwierdzić, że cele, zakres oraz narzędzia finansowe polityki przemysłowej uległy zdecydowanej zmianie – opracowano nowe instrumenty subwencyjne w USA, w wielu przypadkach dyskryminacyjne wobec partnerów z państw trzecich, podczas gdy w istotny sposób złagodzono wcześniej restrykcyjne zasady wspierania krajowych przedsiębiorców w UE
The relationship between the number of statutes coming into force and the number of regulations coming into force: Findings from empirical studies
Get PDFThe aim of this paper is to empirically test the opinion, common in legislative practice, that there is a relationship between the number of statutes and the number of regulations, and to measure the strength and nature of this relationship, if it exists. The data used in the study were obtained from the Polish legal database System Informacji Prawnej Lex and were analysed using Spearman’s correlation and negative binomial regression methods. The results confirmed the existence of the abovementioned relationship, which can be described as strong and exponential. An equation was also formulated to predict the number of regulations that will come into force based on the projected number of statutes coming into force in a given month. The results obtained provide an empirical addition to the extensive legal literature on the regulation as a normative act. They also highlight a possible path for the study of law, particularly in comparative law.The aim of this paper is to empirically test the opinion, common in legislative practice, that there is a relationship between the number of statutes and the number of regulations, and to measure the strength and nature of this relationship, if it exists. The data used in the study were obtained from the Polish legal database System Informacji Prawnej Lex and were analysed using Spearman’s correlation and negative binomial regression methods. The results confirmed the existence of the abovementioned relationship, which can be described as strong and exponential. An equation was also formulated to predict the number of regulations that will come into force based on the projected number of statutes coming into force in a given month. The results obtained provide an empirical addition to the extensive legal literature on the regulation as a normative act. They also highlight a possible path for the study of law, particularly in comparative law
