BCIT Environmental Public Health Journal
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The effectiveness of ozone-chlorine treatment for reducing chloramine concentration compared to chlorine treatment in swimming pools and whirlpools
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Objectives: Chloramines are by-products of chlorine disinfected swimming pools and are hazardous to people if chloramines evaporate into the air. There is evidence that chloramines cause upper respiratory tract and eye irritation. It was suspected that ozone treatment in addition to chlorine disinfection will reduce chloramine levels in the pool. The following study compared chloramine concentration in a strictly chlorine disinfected swimming pool and whirlpool (C.G. Brown) in Burnaby, BC with an ozone-chlorine disinfected swimming pool and whirlpool (Killarney) in Vancouver, BC. The study also compared each pool and whirlpool to the 1.0 mg/L combined chlorine concentration limit in the B.C. Pool Regulation. Methods: Chloramine concentrations were determined by using a Hach Pocket Colorimeter 2 Analysis System which used a DPD method of analysis. Chloramine was determined by subtracting total chlorine by the free chlorine. Thirty pool water samples were analyzed based on two samples per pool per day for fifteen days. A two sample t-test was used to compare the ozone-chlorine treated pools with the chlorine only treated pools using the Mann-Whitney U test. A z-test was used to compare all types of swimming pools and whirlpools to the 1.0 mg/L limit. Results: The chloramine concentration in both the ozone-chlorine disinfected swimming pool and whirlpool was not statistically significantly lower than in the chlorine disinfected swimming pool (p=0.263597) and whirlpool (p=0.523672). Both types of swimming pools were found to be statistically significantly greater than the 1.0 mg/L chloramine limit (p=0.000023 in the chlorine pool and p=0.00001 for the ozone-chlorine pool). Similarly, both types of whirlpools were determined to be statistically significantly greater than the 1.0 mg/L chloramine limit (p=0.000001 for the chlorine pool and p=0.000001 for the ozone-chlorine pool). Conclusion: It was determined that there was no difference between ozone chlorine treated pools and chlorine only treated pools. Environmental Health Officers can suggest other forms of secondary treatment instead of ozone since there is no significant difference compared to chlorine only treated pools in reducing chloramine concentrations. This information is also beneficial for pool operators because they can increase their flow rates for pools that use ozonation or strictly chlorination relative to what they were originally designed for.
 
Shelf-life study of a vegetable-based juice prepared using a masticating juicer
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Background Home juicing has seen a rise in popularity because it gives people an appetizing way to get their daily intake of fresh fruits and vegetables. The roles of proper refrigeration, pasteurization, and acidification are all important in regards to determining the shelf life of a freshly made juice. As the general public may not properly understand these implications, this could become a major concern for public health officials. Methods A vegetable-based juice, made with carrots, celery, apples and parsley was made using a masticating juicer. Two versions of the juice were made, one original and one acidified. The pH, total coliforms, and total bacterial levels were monitored in both versions of the juice over a fifteen-day period. Results Analyses were carried out with the two juice samples. The pH values of the two juices were significantly different (p = 0.0000). No statistically significant difference was found in either the total number of aerobic bacteria or coliforms in the acidified and original juices. The relationship between total bacterial count and pH in the both the acidified and neutral juices were statistically significant, r= 0.7659, p= 0.0098 and r=0.7334, p=0.0158, respectively. No statistically significant correlation was found between coliforms and pH. Conclusion Although it was expected that the acidified juice would have had a lower levels of bacterial growth, this research project failed to show this. The total bacterial levels in the acidified juice was greater than 106 CFU/g on Day 8 and the original juice was greater than 106 CFU/g on Day 10. Regardless of the pH, the safest and lowest bacterial levels will be right when the juice is made.
 
Survey of public knowledge level on the efficacy of alcohol-based hand sanitizers
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Introduction: Alcohol-based hand sanitizers have received wide-spread acceptance in many institutions as a form of disinfection. Whether the public truly understands the mode of action of these products and what they are effective and not effective against has not been examined. The goal of this paper is to test the public’s knowledge regarding alcohol-based hand sanitizers and examine if there are any demographic variables that may contribute to differences in knowledge level. Methods: An online survey was created via Survey Monkey and distributed through Facebook, a social media platform. A paper copy of the survey was distributed to participating senior homes in the Lower Mainland. The knowledge scores were analyzed using Microsoft Excel and NCSS to evaluate whether knowledge scores are affected by demographic variables. Incentives such as water bottles and tumblers were used to invite participants to take part in the survey. Results: The knowledge scores from respondents in health-related professions did not differ significantly from respondents in non-health related professions, however both groups differed from those that are not employed (P =0.000060). Differences in ethnicity did not result in a significantly different knowledge scores regarding hand sanitizers (P =0.441511). Respondents who are over the age of 40 (particularly those who are 70 and above) and respondents whose level of education was high school graduation or less lacked knowledge regarding hand sanitizers compared to other demographic groups. The majority of the respondents knew ABHS was effective against influenza virus. Nearly half of the respondents erroneously thought ABHS was effective against Norovirus. Conclusion: Government agencies and public health officials should focus educational efforts on the population who are over the age of 40, particularly the senior population, and whose level of education is high school or less.
 
Air quality at bus stop microenvironments in a Metro Vancouver urban and suburban area
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BACKGROUND Those commuters waiting in small-scale transportation microenvironments, such as bus stops, can be exposed to levels of pollution higher than what is registered by ambient air quality monitoring stations. In addition, historically, those commuting in urban areas experience greater exposure to air pollutants than those commuting in suburban or rural areas, due to the nature of the environment. Little quantitative research has been conducted in the Metro Vancouver area regarding air quality in small scale transportation microenvironments. OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to assess the differences in commuter exposure during AM Peak and PM Peak periods between an urban (Vancouver) and suburban (Ladner) bus stop. Furthermore, results were to be compared to the Metro Vancouver 24 hour rolling average objective as well as nearby Lower Fraser Valley (LFV) Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Network stations. METHODS The author measured particulate matter (PM) 2.5 (particulate matter ≤ 2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter), using the DustTrakTM Aerosol Monitor 8520 between January 6, 2014 and January 21, 2014 on 12 weekdays, from 6:30am to 7:00am and 5:00pm to 5:30pm, at Stop #55165 Northbound Harvest Dr at Ladner Trunk Rd in Ladner, BC and from Stop #50043 Burrard Stn Bay1 in Vancouver, BC. In addition, meteorological conditions, traffic density, bus volume, and other observations were taken during sampling periods. RESULTS The author found that average PM2.5 exposures were highest during the morning in Ladner (μ=34.38667μg/m3) and lowest during the morning in Vancouver (μ=13.44 μg/m3). In addition, there was a statistically significant difference (p<0.05) between Vancouver AM and the other groups (Ladner AM, Ladner PM [μ=28.07778 μg/m3], and Vancouver PM [μ=30.16667 μg/m3]), but the other groups were not significantly different from each other. Furthermore, the author found that the Vancouver AM average (μ=13.44 μg/m3) was below the Metro Vancouver 24 hour rolling average (25μg/m3) while all other groups (Ladner AM, Ladner PM, and Vancouver PM) exceeded this average. Lastly, when comparing all groups to the AM and PM hourly averages of their respective LFV Air Quality Monitoring Network stations (Ladner AM and PM vs. Tsawwassen AM and PM and Vancouver AM and PM vs. Kitsalano AM and PM), the author found that all groups averages exceeded the hourly averages of their respective stations. CONCLUSION Commuters’ peak hour exposures were significantly influenced by different microenvironments and were found to be higher than the ambient PM2.5 levels registered by the respective LFV Air Quality Monitoring Network stations. In order to address this, Metro Vancouver should implement personal exposure assessments, especially near roadways, to obtain actual levels of exposure to pollutants, such as PM2.5, by their residents. In this way, acute and chronic health outcome risks to air pollution can be better understood.
 
The CO2 and PM2.5 levels in Downtown Vancouver at peak (5 p.m.) and off-peak (12 a.m.) hours
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The effects of air pollution and global warming on human health have reached a dangerous level and this situation has become a critical environmental concern all over the world. The aim of the study was to explore levels of PM2.5 and CO2 emitted from the combustion engines of the road vehicles. The reason for choosing PM2.5 as one of the variables in this study is that it easily penetrates the lungs alveoli and is transmitted to other body organs by blood circulation. Exposure to PM2.5 from a few hours to a few weeks can cause serious cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), including death. The longer the exposure, the higher the risk for cardiovascular mortality. On the other hand, decrease in PM2.5 levels reduces cardiovascular mortality. Studies also show that PM2.5 is associated with diabetes, hypertension, and heart failure. The reason for choosing CO2 was its being as one of the six greenhouse gases leading to the climate change or global warming that threatens human health all over the world. Traffic emissions are the major source for both PM2.5 and CO2. That is why to understand the extent of the PM2.5 and the CO2 emissions from fossil fuel burning and thus their impact on human life is important. Studies show that while air pollution is high during peak hours, it is lower during off-peak hours. Moving from this fact, the discrepancies between peak and off-peak hours readings of the PM2.5 and CO2 levels, which were measured in Vancouver Downtown during 30 consecutive days, were observed. Air particulates PM2.5 were measured with the Dust Trak aerosol monitor and CO2 levels with Q Trak monitor. Results showed a statistically significant difference in the median concentration of PM2.5 between 5 p.m. and 12 a.m. (p=0.018). However there was no statistically significant difference in the median concentration of CO2 between 5 p.m. and 12 a.m. (p=0.84). Measures to reduce air pollution, particularly through reducing PM2.5 and CO2 levels, especially in urban settings, can help reduce the risks of global warming (CO2 effect) and have positive effect on public health issues by preventing or reducing the risks of occurrence of many diseases, and their fatal consequences in some instances, caused or triggered by exposure to air pollution. Both national governments and international agencies should support the scientific research the results of which will inform the public health policies and regulations that will promote cleaner air and thus healthier societies by both implementing some enforcement measures and educating the public on the risks of air pollution and global warming and the relevant and available remedies. This study has been carried out to contribute to the efforts made to this end.
 
Investigating the effectiveness of washing cantaloupe melon rind in preventing the transference of surface E. coli into melon flesh
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Cantaloupe melon was the source of a lethal outbreak of Listeria in 2011. This research investigated whether washing a contaminated cantaloupe rind was sufficient in preventing the transferring of Escherichia coli. Hence, the null hypothesis for this study was that there is no association between washing a contaminated cantaloupe melon and the presence of the contamination in the flesh. In this study, 10 cantaloupes were used to produce a sample size of 20 per washed and unwashed treatments. Each of the samples was transferred to EC broth to determine the presence and absence of Escherichia coli (E. coli), the indicator organism that acted as the “outbreak contaminant.” The results showed 100% of the unwashed melons and 80% of the washed melons to have E. coli transferred into the flesh. A Chi Square analysis produced a p-value of 0.035. The study determined that there was a statistically significant association between washing a melon and the presence of E. coli in the melon flesh. The author recommends washing melon rind as a means to prevent foodborne illness caused by surface contaminants.
 
Mechanically tenderized meat: a survey at the retail level
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Background: In 2012, mechanically tenderized meat raised public health concern when an E.Coli 0157:H7 outbreak was linked to the tenderization process. It was discovered that the machinery pushed the E.Coli from the surface of contaminated meat products such as steaks and roasts, into the interior, where it was able to survive the cooking process. Concerns were raised by Lorraine McIntyre and the BCCDC about this issue, and their desire to improve their knowledge base in order to adequately assess the risk. Methods: Data was gathered via a survey conducted electronically and by telephone. Questions were asked to determine the proportion of retail establishments that use their own tenderizing equipment. Questions also asked about other industry practices such as current sanitization and labeling practices. Results: The results of this study were that 24% of surveyed establishments mechanically tenderize their meat products. Of these establishments, 33% have a label that states the meat has been tenderized mechanically and 17% provide cooking instructions on this label. An association was found between mechanically tenderizing meat and establishment type, which suggests that grocery stores are more likely to mechanically tenderize than other establishments, such as restaurants. On the other hand, no association was found between operator experience and their level of knowledge regarding the risks of mechanical tenderization. Conclusions: Overall, this study has demonstrated the likelihood is high that consumers purchase and consume beef that has been mechanically tenderized at the retail level. The results from this study can be used to aid public health officials in quantifying the risk of mechanical tenderization at a retail level and aid in the development and implementation of new legislation such as mandatory labeling of all mechanically tenderized meat.
 
Wi-Fi radiation levels at BCIT
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Objective: To determine if there are any difference in the amount of EMF Wi-Fi radiation being emitted between three locations at the BCIT campus in Burnaby, BC. Background: Wi-Fi radiation is widely being used in today’s society for the quick access it gives us to connect to the internet. Some cities in the United Kingdom have installed many Wi-Fi devices throughout the public domain so people can be connected all the time. Furthermore, most schools are being outfitted with routers to provide internet access for their students. But, as this paper will show, new research is forcing a shift in the thinking of some policy makers in choosing to install these connections in the public domain. Method: To measure the amount of non-ionizing EMF radiation being absorbed by the body, an Extech RF meter was used. This instrument provides instantaneous and average readings for a particular area one measures. During the experiment, the RF meter was held stationary at one location for approximately 10-15 seconds in order to stabilize the reading. The average value was taken as the instantaneous reading was fluctuating. This process was done in 3 buildings at BCIT and in order to increase the reliability and validity, 30 data points were collected from each building. Results: The Tests of Assumption showed that the data was not normally distributed as there was more than one “Reject” at the 0.05 probability level. For analysis, the Krukal-Wallis One-Way ANOVA was utilized and results showed that due to a high probability level of 0.57, the H0 could not be rejected and as a result there are no differences in radiation levels being emitted into the buildings tested. Conclusion: The amount of Wi-Fi radiation in the three buildings tested at BCIT were not significantly different from one another.
 
How do you sleep at night? a survey study on sleep deprivation and cognition
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Background: Sacrificing sleep on a daily basis has become a lifestyle for a growing number of people. This habit has been found to decrease overall cognitive health and performance. Raising awareness about benefits of a good night’s sleep and the negative effects of inadequate sleep is pertinent to shaping a healthy public conscience about sleep. It is also an important factor to consider for public health professionals since they must think critically throughout the working day and their work impacts those in their care. The purpose of this study was to assess the association between cognitive performance and sleep-related habits in a population of 31 Environmental Health students at BCIT during the Winter 2014 semester. Methods: A survey that collected subjective data on sleep-related habits and a brief cognitive test were used to assess cognitive performance. The cognitive test scores were marked with an index out of 20 and analyzed with a paired T-test to explore any differences from two study trials in January and February. Results: There was a significant decrease in cognitive index scores over the four week period. This was confirmed by a paired T-test with a p-value of 0.000005, with a significance level of α = 0.05. Average index scores were 18.91993 in January, 15.87063 in February, and the rounded average decline in scores was 3.13. Conclusion: Using an electronic device prior to going to sleep was deemed to be the most likely factor behind a significant decline in cognitive performance between January and February. Excessive exposure to light during naturally dark hours of the evening may curtail physiological processes during sleep (i.e. hormonal activities) effecting cognitive health and performance.
 
Inspecting inspection reports, does the type of restaurant change the risk?
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Background An estimated of 4 million Canadians (one in eight people) become ill every year from a food-borne illness (Thomas et al., 2013). The economic and social burdens of these illnesses are vast. As restaurants are a big sector of the food industry, improving their food safety would reduce the risk of food-borne illnesses. Environmental Health Officers (EHOs) are on the front line, educating restaurant operators in order to improve food safety. In Metro Vancouver there are many different types of ethnicities and types of restaurants; this provides a challenge for EHOs to know where to allocate their time and resources. Methods The author analyzed 150 Fraser Health inspection reports in the Burnaby, New Westminster and Surrey municipalities. The restaurants fell into three different categories: i) Independently owned ethnic, ii) Independently owned, non-ethnic and iii) chain non-ethnic restaurants. Hazard ratings, number of critical and number of non-critical violations from their latest inspection report were compared. Each violation code was also recorded to identify any infraction trends that exist. Results Analysis of the number of critical violations identified ethnic, chain non-ethnic, and independent non-ethnic restaurants as not being significantly different (p=0.09). The number of non-critical violations was different (0.033), with ethnic restaurants having the most. The number of critical violations, when treating each ethnicity as its own category, is however significantly different (p=0.044) between restaurant types. There was a significant association between hazard rating and restaurant type, with independent ethnic restaurants having the worst hazard rating (p=0.017). Conclusion The type of ownership (independent vs chain) and the restaurant type were not a factor when looking at number of critical violations that a restaurant commits. Independent ethnic restaurants had a slightly higher mean number of critical violations. Japanese restaurants had the highest number of critical violations out of the three ethnicities studied. These findings suggest a slight disparity in risk to public health between ethnic and non-ethnic restaurants.