Revista Internacional de Contaminación Ambiental
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CARACTERIZACIÓN DE MEMBRANAS DE ÓSMOSIS INVERSA PARA TRATAMIENTO DE AGUA POR TÉCNICAS DE MICROSCOPIA DE FUERZA ATÓMICA
Get PDFMembrane technology, applied to separation processes on residual or contaminated water has evolved as chemical and physical properties improve. Our main goal was to develop a method for atomic force microscopy image analysis, to eliminate subjective criteria and obtain pore size data. Tools from WxSM 5.0 Develop 8.3 software were used to invert images, and statistical analysis was performed from median ranges to obtain pore size distribution. Results were compared to data obtained from dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), stiffness, storage and loss module, and glass transition temperature (Tg). Most uniformed pore size distribution was obtained by membrane prepared at 180 ºC with FeCl3, μp was 35 nm and MWCO of 268 KDa, the same membrane presented the best mechanical properties, 0.86 GPa Young modulus, and 26 MPa tensile rupture strain. These results will relate preparation conditions with structure and later functionality on filtration processes. La tecnología de membranas aplicada a procesos de separación en el tratamiento de aguas contaminadas o residuales, ha evolucionado a medida que se desarrollan mejoras en sus propiedades físicas y químicas. El objetivo de este trabajo fue desarrollar un método para el manejo de las imágenes del microscopio de fuerza atómica, con el fin de eliminar criterios subjetivos y obtener datos sobre el tamaño de poros de las membranas. Se utilizaron las herramientas de inversión de imagen y análisis de granos del software WxSM 5.0 Develop 8.3 y un análisis estadístico a partir de rangos medios. Asimismo, se llevó a cabo un análisis mecánico dinámico (DMA, por sus siglas en inglés) para obtener datos de rigidez, módulo de disipación y temperatura de transición vítrea (Tg), y comparar resultados. La membrana preparada a 180 ºC con FeCl3 presentó la distribución de tamaño de poro más uniforme, con un μp de 35 nm y MWCO de 268 KDa. Esta membrana también obtuvo las mejores propiedades mecánicas en los análisis de DMA y esfuerzo a la tensión, con un módulo de Yong de 0.86 GPa, y un esfuerzo a la ruptura de 26 MPa. Estos resultados permitirán relacionar las condiciones de síntesis de las membranas con su estructura y posterior funcionamiento en los procesos de filtración
ESTUDIO DE LA BIOADSORCIÓN DE COBRE Y ZINC CON BIOMASA SECA DE Escherichia coli PRETRATADA Y SIN TRATAR
Get PDFNowadays, new technologies are being developed for the removal of heavy metals, which are intended to have low operating costs and easy to implement. The copper and zinc bioadsorption in batch system was studies in pre-treated, with sodium hydroxide, and untreated Escherichia coli dried biomass. The E. coli was isolated and identified from water samples from the San Pedro river, Sonora, México. The dry biomass of E. coli was pretreated with 0.1 N sodium hydroxide. The optimal biosorption conditions were at pH 5, 30 ºC and 100 rpm. These studies demonstrated the effectiveness of the pre-treated biomass in determining the maximum bioadsorption capacity using the Langmuir model, and they were for copper of 204.49 mg/g and zinc of 151.97 mg/g, and for biomass untreated with copper and zinc were 107.52 mg/g and 125 mg/g, respectively. In addition, with the characterization by scanning electron microscopy and dispersive energy spectroscopy, the presence of copper and zinc were observed. The absorption bands by Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometry confirmed carboxyl, hydroxyl, amino and phosphate groups on the surface of E. coli. The use of dry biomass of pre-treated Escherichia coli in this study, showed to be effective in the bioadsorption process.Actualmente se están desarrollando nuevas tecnologías para la eliminación de metales pesados, las cuales se pretende tengan bajo costo de operación y sean fáciles de implementar. En este trabajo se estudió la bioadsorción de cobre y zinc a partir de biomasa seca de Escherichia coli pretratada con hidróxido de sodio y sin tratar por sistema en lote. Se aisló e identificó E. coli de muestras de aguas provenientes del río San Pedro, Sonora, México. La biomasa seca de E. coli fue pretratada con hidróxido de sodio 0.1 N. Las condiciones óptimas de bioadsorción fueron a pH 5, 30 ºC y 100 rpm. Los estudios realizados demostraron la efectividad de la biomasa pretratada al determinar la capacidad máxima de bioadsorción a partir del modelo de Langmuir, y fueron para cobre de 204.49 mg/g, para zinc de 151.97 mg/g, y para biomasa sin tratar con cobre y zinc fueron de 107.52 mg/g y 125 mg/g, respectivamente. Adicionalmente, con la caracterización por microscopía electrónica de barrido y espectroscopía de energía dispersiva se observó la presencia de cobre y zinc. Las bandas de absorción obtenidas por espectrofotometría de infrarrojo por transformada de Fourier confirmaron grupos carboxilo, hidroxilo, amino y fosfato en la superficie de E. coli. En este estudio el uso de biomasa seca de Escherichia coli pretratada mostró ser efectiva en el proceso de bioadsorción
THE STUDY OF THE ROLE OF BIOLOGICAL IRON SULFIDE COMPOSITES ON COPPER REMOVAL BY CHANGING GEOCHEMICAL FORMS
Get PDFThe growth of biological iron sulfide composites and their efficacy for changing the geochemical forms of copper in sediment have been investigated. The role of bacteria in copper removal was identified using copper concentrations in three forms extracted via three sequential extraction methods. Furthermore, bacterial community diversity was investigated between different treatments. Copper was transformed from the weak acidic extraction state to the reduction state and the oxidation state under the action of biological iron sulfide composites. The conversion rates of copper from the weak acidic extraction state to other states was up to 76.66% and the increasing rates of the reduction state was up to 177.85%. Higher dissolved oxygen does harm sulfate reducing bacteria and results in low removal efficiency of copper. It can be inferred that differences in the bacterial community structure resulted in differences between conversion rates and biological efficacy through the correlation between copper concentration and alpha diversity or beta diversity. Furthermore, bacterial 16S rRNA gene analysis showed that Proteobacteria, which sulfate reducing bacteria belong to, were predominant in the group with higher removal efficiency. The biological iron sulfide composites affected the removal efficiency of copper by increasing the sulfate reducing bacteria activity inside the sedimentsThe growth of biological iron sulfide composites and their efficacy for changing the geochemical forms of copper in sediment have been investigated. The role of bacteria in copper removal was identified using copper concentrations in three forms extracted via three sequential extraction methods. Furthermore, bacterial community diversity was investigated between different treatments. Copper was transformed from the weak acidic extraction state to the reduction state and the oxidation state under the action of biological iron sulfide composites. The conversion rates of copper from the weak acidic extraction state to other states was up to 76.66% and the increasing rates of the reduction state was up to 177.85%. Higher dissolved oxygen does harm sulfate reducing bacteria and results in low removal efficiency of copper. It can be inferred that differences in the bacterial community structure resulted in differences between conversion rates and biological efficacy through the correlation between copper concentration and alpha diversity or beta diversity. Furthermore, bacterial 16S rRNA gene analysis showed that Proteobacteria, which sulfate reducing bacteria belong to, were predominant in the group with higher removal efficiency. The biological iron sulfide composites affected the removal efficiency of copper by increasing the sulfate reducing bacteria activity inside the sediments
RISK EVALUATION OF WATER CONSERVANCY IN A PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP PROJECT BASED ON GREY FUZZY THEORY
Get PDFIn this paper, a quantifiable method for risk evaluation of water conservancy ina public-private partnership (PP) PPP project is presented. Firstly, according to the characteristics of water conservancy PPP project, a risk evaluation index was determined by Delphi method and literature collection method; secondly, the weight of risk evaluation indexes were determined by rank correlation analysis; thirdly, based on grey fuzzy theory, a grey fuzzy comprehensive evaluation model was constructed, and uncertain grey and fuzzy contents were transformed into values that can be accurately measured, which provided a basis for managers to make decisions. Finally, the grey fuzzy comprehensive evaluation model was applied to Fendou Reservoir, a water conservancy PPP project, and it proved to be reasonable and scientific.In this paper, a quantifiable method for risk evaluation of water conservancy ina public-private partnership (PP) PPP project is presented. Firstly, according to the characteristics of water conservancy PPP project, a risk evaluation index was determined by Delphi method and literature collection method; secondly, the weight of risk evaluation indexes were determined by rank correlation analysis; thirdly, based on grey fuzzy theory, a grey fuzzy comprehensive evaluation model was constructed, and uncertain grey and fuzzy contents were transformed into values that can be accurately measured, which provided a basis for managers to make decisions. Finally, the grey fuzzy comprehensive evaluation model was applied to Fendou Reservoir, a water conservancy PPP project, and it proved to be reasonable and scientific.In this paper, a quantifiable method for risk evaluation of water conservancy ina public-private partnership (PP) PPP project is presented. Firstly, according to the characteristics of water conservancy PPP project, a risk evaluation index was determined by Delphi method and literature collection method; secondly, the weight of risk evaluation indexes were determined by rank correlation analysis; thirdly, based on grey fuzzy theory, a grey fuzzy comprehensive evaluation model was constructed, and uncertain grey and fuzzy contents were transformed into values that can be accurately measured, which provided a basis for managers to make decisions. Finally, the grey fuzzy comprehensive evaluation model was applied to Fendou Reservoir, a water conservancy PPP project, and it proved to be reasonable and scientific
IDENTIFICACIÓN DE SITIOS CON POTENCIAL PARA LA DISPOSICIÓN FINAL DE RESIDUOS SÓLIDOS URBANOS EN EL MUNICIPIO DE TEPIC, NAYARIT, México
Get PDFThe growth of population in urban areas and the development of cities should support environmental sustainability in solid waste management systems. The final disposal of this waste is a serious problem, since it is the critical point for the control of environmental contamination of local soils and water sources. Therefore, the need to designate suitable sites for their final disposal is evident and justified. In this context, the objective of this paper is to identify potential areas for the location of a solid waste landfill in the municipality of Tepic. A spatial analysis of the municipality was carried out, contrasting four criteria indicated in the Official Mexican Standard NOM-083-SEMARNAT-2003, two other natural features, slope and coverage, andland use. It has been possible to identify 5.4 % of the surface of the municipality of Tepic (about 9090.8 ha) with appropriate land features for the location of a sanitary landfill; the remaining 94.6 % presents at least one characteristic that limits or restricts this purpose. This work represents a first approach for the identification of suitable areas for final disposal sites of urban solid waste.El crecimiento de la población en áreas urbanas y el desarrollo de las ciudades debe apoyar la sostenibilidad ambiental en los sistemas de manejo de residuos sólidos. La disposición final de estos residuos es un problema serio, ya que es el punto crítico para el control de la contaminación ambiental de suelos y fuentes de agua locales. Por lo anterior, la necesidad de designar sitios adecuados para su disposición final es evidente y justificada. En este contexto, el objetivo de este trabajo es identificar zonas potenciales para la ubicación de un relleno sanitario de residuos sólidos en el municipio de Tepic. Se realizó un análisis espacial del municipio contrastando cuatro criterios señalados en la Norma Oficial Mexicana NOM-083-SEMARNAT-2003, dos rasgos naturales más, pendiente y cobertura, y uso del terreno. Se logró identificar un 5.4 % de superficie del municipio de Tepic (cerca de 9090.8 ha) con rasgos apropiados para la ubicación de un relleno sanitario; el 94.6 % restante presenta al menos una característica que lo limita o restringe para este fin. Este trabajo representa un primer acercamiento para la identificación de áreas adecuadas para los sitios de disposición final de residuos sólidos urbanos
VALORIZACIÓN DE RESIDUOS GENERADOS EN LA AGROINDUSTRIA EN GUANAJUATO APLICANDO PRINCIPIOS DE ECOLOGÍA INDUSTRIAL
Get PDFIn the municipality of Pénjamo, Guanajuato, Mexico, the agroindustry is the most important productive sector, especially the swine industry. However, wastes form this industry still lack a proper management. There are residues such as hair, hooves and eyelids of pigs that could provide additional value and opportunities. This work proposes alternatives for the valorization of swine production residues, applying industrial ecology, which seeks to establish alternatives for the closing of the cycle of matter and energy utilization in industrial systems, thus building synergies between existing companies (or between an existing company and new ones) and encouraging residual flows being produced by one and reutilized as raw material by another. In this case, the environment of an agro-industrial cluster in Pénjamo was analyzed and new synergies were proposed: the development of amino acids using pig hair, the manufacture of gelatine from hooves and eyelids, the transformation of slurry from porcine farms into biogas and/or electric energy and the production of slabs and boards using the agave bagasse. It was also proposed to promote the formation of other companies, for example by taking the organic residues of greenhouses, seed and plants, to create a composting plant. With the proposed synergies, the waste generated by the agro-industrial sector could be reduced, as well as waste generated by companies with different activities, thus generating environmental and economic benefits to the municipality and the agro-industrial sector.En el municipio de Pénjamo, Guanajuato, el sector productivo más importante es el agroindustrial, destacando la industria porcina. Sin embargo, ésta no cuenta con una gestión adecuada de residuos como pelo, pezuñas y párpados de cerdos, que son susceptibles de aprovechamiento. Este trabajo propone alternativas de valorización de estos residuos aplicando la ecología industrial, que busca establecer alternativas para el cierre de ciclo de materia y el aprovechamiento de energía en sistemas industriales. De esta manera construye sinergias entre empresas existentes (o bien entre una empresa existente y una nueva), y propicia el aprovechamiento de los flujos residuales de una empresa como materia premia por otra. En este caso, se analizó el entorno de un clúster agroindustrial de Pénjamo y se propusieron nuevas sinergias: la elaboración de aminoácidos con el pelo de cerdo, la fabricación de grenetina a partir de pezuñas y párpados, la transformación en biogás y/o energía eléctrica de purines de granjas porcinas y la obtención de láminas y tableros utilizando el bagazo de agave. Asimismo, se propusieron intercambios que podrían contribuir a la formación de otras empresas; por ejemplo, crear una planta de composta a partir de residuos orgánicos de invernaderos, mermas de semillas y alimentos. Con las sinergias propuestas, se pueden reducir los residuos generados por el sector agroindustrial y aprovechar residuos generados por empresas de giros diferentes al porcino, lo que conllevaría un beneficio ambiental y un beneficio económico
CARACTERIZACIÓN HIDROGEOQUÍMICA EN LA CUENCA HIDROLÓGICA EL CARRIZAL, BAJA CALIFORNIA SUR, MÉXICO
Get PDFThe El Carrizal hydrological basin is located in the southwest zone of the state of Baja California Sur, Mexico. The El Triunfo-San Antonio mining district, where mine tailings are located with high concentrations of potentially toxic elements (PTEs), is located in the higher part of the basin. The demographic growth of the city of La Paz has pushed to transfer water from this basin, so the aim of this work was to characterize the hydrogeochemical composition of groundwater and to evaluate the water quality for human consumption. In the year 2015, 19 wells in the El Carrizal basin and 11 wells in the basins of La Paz, La Matanza and Santa Inés-La Muela were sampled during the dry (April-May) and rainy (November-December) seasons. The physicochemical parameters were measured in situ, the major ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl–, SO42–, HCO3– and NO3–) and PTEs (As, Cd) were determined in the laboratory. The results indicated that the types of water are mainly associated with the lithology of the area in the upper part of the El Carrizal basin, and that the type of water that predominates contains Ca2+ and HCO3–. In the study area, 67 % of the wells in the dry season exceeded the concentration limit of As (10 μg/L). A continuous monitoring of these groundwater wells is necessary to support the supply programs for the population.La cuenca hidrológica El Carrizal se ubica al suroeste del estado de Baja California Sur, México. El distrito minero El Triunfo-San Antonio, donde se localizan jales mineros con altas concentraciones de elementos potencialmente tóxicos (EPT), se encuentra en la parte alta de la cuenca. El crecimiento demográfico en la ciudad de La Paz ha ejercido presión para la transferencia de agua de esta cuenca, por lo que el objetivo de este trabajo fue caracterizar la composición hidrogeoquímica del agua subterránea y evaluar su calidad para consumo humano. En 2015, durante las épocas de estiaje (abril-mayo) y lluvias (noviembre-diciembre), se muestrearon 19 pozos de la cuenca El Carrizal y 11 pozos de las cuencas La Paz, La Matanza y Santa Inés-La Muela. Los parámetros físicos y químicos fueron medidos in situ y los iones mayores (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl–, SO42–, HCO3– y NO3–) y EPT (As y Cd) se determinaron en el laboratorio. Se encontró que los tipos de agua están asociados principalmente a la litología de la zona en la parte alta de la cuenca El Carrizal, y que el tipo de agua que predomina es bicarbonatada cálcica (Ca2+-HCO3–). En el área de estudio el 67 % de los pozos en época de estiaje rebasaron el límite de la concentración de As (10 µg/L). Es necesario establecer un monitoreo continuo de estos pozos de agua subterránea para apoyar los programas de abasto a la población
CHARACTERIZATION OF PULP AND PAPER MILL WASTE FOR THE PRODUCTION OF WASTE-BASED CEMENT
Get PDFWaste generation is increasing in many industries. Therefore, effective measures are required to secure an environmentally sustainable and economically viable waste destination. Co-processing in clinker kilns at high temperatures and incorporation into cement matrices may stabilize many types of industrial waste. This paper presents the results of a study that characterized pulp and paper mill waste and their recycling in clinker production. Chemical characterization and estimation of the hazardous potential of lime mud, biomass ash, and wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) sludge were performed in accordance with brazilian standard (NBR) 10004:2004. Biomass ash and WWTP sludge were classified as non-hazardous (class II), while lime mud was classified as hazardous (pH > 12.5, class I). These wastes were mixed (69 wt % lime mud, 29 wt % biomass ash, and 2 wt % WWTP sludge), and the resulting mixture was processed at 1455 ºC to generate ‘Ecoclinker’. The clinker was characterized, milled, and mixed with calcium sulphate for use as an ‘Ecocement’. Mortars were obtained and cured for periods of seven and twenty-eight days. The hardened product exhibited a mechanical strength of ~20 MPa. The leaching and pH tests indicated that these parameters were within the permitted limits, confirming that this waste-based cement was non-hazardous. Waste generation is increasing in many industries. Therefore, effective measures are required to secure an environmentally sustainable and economically viable waste destination. Co-processing in clinker kilns at high temperatures and incorporation into cement matrices may stabilize many types of industrial waste. This paper presents the results of a study that characterized pulp and paper mill waste and their recycling in clinker production. Chemical characterization and estimation of the hazardous potential of lime mud, biomass ash, and wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) sludge were performed in accordance with brazilian standard (NBR) 10004:2004. Biomass ash and WWTP sludge were classified as non-hazardous (class II), while lime mud was classified as hazardous (pH > 12.5, class I). These wastes were mixed (69 wt % lime mud, 29 wt % biomass ash, and 2 wt % WWTP sludge), and the resulting mixture was processed at 1455 ºC to generate ‘Ecoclinker’. The clinker was characterized, milled, and mixed with calcium sulphate for use as an ‘Ecocement’. Mortars were obtained and cured for periods of seven and twenty-eight days. The hardened product exhibited a mechanical strength of ~20 MPa. The leaching and pH tests indicated that these parameters were within the permitted limits, confirming that this waste-based cement was non-hazardous
HEAVY METALS CONTAMINATION IN THE GULF OF GUAYAQUIL: EVEN LIMITED DATA REFLECTS ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS FROM ANTHROPOGENIC ACTIVITY
Get PDFThe Gulf of Guayaquil, the largest estuary on the Pacific coast of South America, provides livelihoods for fishing communities that supply seafood to national markets. Activities like mining and agriculture are major sources of contamination in the estuary, yet their effects on the ecosystem have not been determined. Publicly-available data were compiled to provide an overview of the level of contamination in water, sediment and seafood in this system. Measured concentrations (Cm) were compared with their corresponding permitted levels (Csl) defined in international regulations. Comparison outcomes were classified using a traffic-light color scale: green for ideal conditions (Cm < Csl × 10–1), yellow for alert situations that require precautionary measures (Csl × 10–1 ≤ Cm ≤ Csl × 10), or red for dangerous situations that must be remediated (Cm > Csl × 10). A total of 24 studies were found. Cadmium, mercury and lead were the most commonly analyzed elements. Water samples showed the highest percentage of dangerous levels (> 70 % for Cd, > 80 % for Hg). Extreme concentrations of Hg (1000 times > Csl) were reported for clams (Anadara spp.) and crabs (Ucides occidentalis) collected in the southern zone impacted by gold mining. Studies evidenced the limited use of quality assurance and control procedures on the data-gathering process, resulting in uncertainty. By using orders of magnitude to assess contamination levels, the effects of low precision in the pattern of contamination were reduced. This contribution intends to inform stakeholders about the implications for public health.The Gulf of Guayaquil, the largest estuary on the Pacific coast of South America, provides livelihoods for fishing communities that supply seafood to national markets. Activities like mining and agriculture are major sources of contamination in the estuary, yet their effects on the ecosystem have not been determined. Publicly-available data were compiled to provide an overview of the level of contamination in water, sediment and seafood in this system. Measured concentrations (Cm) were compared with their corresponding permitted levels (Csl) defined in international regulations. Comparison outcomes were classified using a traffic-light color scale: green for ideal conditions (Cm < Csl × 10–1), yellow for alert situations that require precautionary measures (Csl × 10–1 ≤ Cm ≤ Csl × 10), or red for dangerous situations that must be remediated (Cm > Csl × 10). A total of 24 studies were found. Cadmium, mercury and lead were the most commonly analyzed elements. Water samples showed the highest percentage of dangerous levels (> 70 % for Cd, > 80 % for Hg). Extreme concentrations of Hg (1000 times > Csl) were reported for clams (Anadara spp.) and crabs (Ucides occidentalis) collected in the southern zone impacted by gold mining. Studies evidenced the limited use of quality assurance and control procedures on the data-gathering process, resulting in uncertainty. By using orders of magnitude to assess contamination levels, the effects of low precision in the pattern of contamination were reduced. This contribution intends to inform stakeholders about the implications for public health
INDICADORES INDIRECTOS DE CONTAMINACIÓN RESIDUAL EN SUELOS Y SEDIMENTOS DE LA CUENCA DEL RÍO SONORA, MÉXICO
Get PDFIn Cananea, Sonora, the spill of 40 000 m3 of an acid solution rich in iron and copper reached the main water streams of the Sonora river basin, affecting soils and sediments and giving them an anomalous yellowish brown coloration. In the present study, residual contamination (RC) of soils and sediments in the basin was monitored, evaluating color, pH and electrical conductivity (EC) in 41 samples obtained throughout the basin at various depths in the vertical and horizontal directions in a soil profile (TIIZ1B) affected by RC. These properties were supposed to be indirect indicators of RC because of their modification by the influence of the poured solution. Additionally, total concentrations of potentially toxic elements present in the poured solution were determined in soils and sediments. There is an acceptable lineal correlation (0.75) between EC and the yellow color vector (b*), and between these and the concentrations of As, Cu, Fe and Zn (r = 0.52-0.91). The TIIZ1B soil profile analysis allowed relating color, pH and EC with mineralogical changes and increase in the concentrations of As, Cu and Fe. The increase in color vectors to red (a*) and yellow tones is related to the rise in the Fe concentration and to the increase of brightness (L*), the latter being linked to the precipitation of calcium sulfate. Concentration of As and Fe increases in the portion of the soil with the most acidic pH values, while Cu increases with the increase of pH and a negative point of zero charge. Color, pH and EC are useful parameters in the indirect determination of RC.El vertido de 40 000 m3 de solución ácida ferro-cuprífera en Cananea, Sonora, alcanzó las principales corrientes superficiales de la cuenca del río Sonora, afectando suelos y sedimentos y aportándoles una coloración anómala pardo amarillenta. En el presente estudio se dio seguimiento a la contaminación residual (CR) en suelos y sedimentos, evaluando color, pH y conductividad eléctrica (CE) en 41 muestras obtenidas a lo largo de la cuenca, así como en los ejes vertical y horizontal de un perfil de suelo (TIIZ1B) afectado con CR. Estas propiedades podrían ser indicadores indirectos, ya que se modificaron por influencia del vertido minero. En las muestras también se determinó la concentración total de elementos potencialmente tóxicos presentes en el vertido. Los resultados indicaron correlación lineal aceptable (0.75) entre la CE y el vector de color amarillo (b*), así como entre éstos y las concentraciones de As, Cu, Fe y Zn (r = 0.52-0.91). El análisis del perfil TIIZ1B permitió relacionar color, pH y CE con cambios mineralógicos y aumento en las concentraciones de As, Cu y Fe. El incremento en los vectores de color hacia tonalidades rojas (a*) y amarillas se relaciona con aumento en la concentración de Fe, y el incremento en la luminosidad (L*) se vincula con la precipitación de yeso. El Fe y el As aumentan donde el pH es más ácido y el Cu se incrementa con el aumento del pH y cuando el punto de carga cero es negativo. Color, pH y CE son parámetros útiles en la determinación indirecta de la CR