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A KÖRNYEZETI ADÓZÁS EURÓPAI UNIÓS SZABÁLYAIVAL KAPCSOLATOS PROBLÉMAFELVETÉS
Get PDFThe study scrutinizes the European rules related to environmental taxation with regard to the current European directives. The thesis presents the brief development of environmental policy, its basic concepts and types, as well as the system of regulation. After that, the European system of environmental taxes are described, supplemented with statistical data, and the European green reform efforts are also briefly presented.A tanulmány a környezeti adózással kapcsolatos európai szabályokat veszi górcső alá, tekintettel a hatályos európai direktívákra. A dolgozat bemutatja a környezetpolitika rövid fejlődését, alapfogalmait és típusait, valamint a szabályozás eszközrendszerét. Ezt követően a környezeti adók európai rendszerének ismertetése következik statisztikai adatokkal kiegészítve, továbbá sor kerül az európai zöldreformra irányuló törekvések rövid prezentálásra is
A GYERMEKMUNKA KLASSZIKUS ÉS UNIKÁLIS FORMÁIVAL SZEMBENI ÁLLAMI FELLÉPÉS LEHETŐSÉGEI
Get PDFArticle 32 of the New York Convention on the Rights of the Child highlights the need to protect children from economic exploitation. This includes the prohibition of forced labour and the requirement to ensure adequate working conditions. The legislator makes it an obligation to set age limits and regulate the legal basis for adequate working conditions. Why is it necessary to highlight this in the first decades of the twenty-first century? Because child labour still exists today. Contrary to belief, not only in third world countries, but even in the countries of the European Union. Classic forms of illegal child labour have long been known to specialists. The root cause can be poverty, migration constraints or even war. But it is important to point out that, in our opinion, in addition to classical forms, social media platforms can also represent a new field that can be a venue for the exploitation of children and the violation of children’s rights, even if only virtually. Therefore, in our study, in addition to presenting classic situations and analysing them from the point of view oflabour law, we also try to introduce, present and propose new forms for the development of appropriate legal protection tools.A gyermekek jogairól szóló New York-i egyezmény 32. cikke kiemeli, hogy a gyermekeket meg kell védeni a gazdasági kizsákmányolástól. Ez magában foglalja a kényszermunka tilalmát és a megfelelő munkafeltételek biztosításának a követelményét is. A jogalkotó kötelezettségévé teszi az életkori határok megállapítását és a megfelelő munkafeltételek jogi alapjának a szabályozását. Miért van szükség arra, hogy ezt a XXI. század első évtizedeiben is külön kiemeljük? Azért, mert a gyermekmunka mai napig is létezik. A hiedelemmel ellentétben nemcsak a harmadik világ országaiban, hanem akár az Európai Unió országaiban is. Az illegális gyermekmunka klasszikus formáit a szakemberek régóta ismerik. A kiváltó oka lehet a szegénység, migrációs kényszerhelyzet vagy akár a háború is. Azonban fontos kiemelnünk, hogy véleményünk szerint a klasszikus formák mellett a digitális platformok is olyan új terepet jelenthetnek, amely akár (ha csak virtuálisan is, de) helyszíne lehet a gyermekek kizsákmányolásának, a gyermeki jogok sérelmének. Tanulmányunkban éppen ezért a klasszikus helyzetek bemutatása és munkajogi szempontú elemzése mellett az új formákat is próbáljuk beemelni, bemutatni és javaslatot tenni a megfelelő jogi védelmi eszközök kialakítására
The Relevance of the Passing of Time in Criminal Law, with Special Reference to Due Process
Get PDFThe requirement for the conclusion of criminal proceedings within a reasonable time appears as a component of the right to a fair trial in international human rights documents as well as among the national fundamental rights. The passage of time and the prolongation of criminal proceedings are considered by courts as mitigating factors during sentencing. However, taking these factors into account as mitigating circumstances is not unproblematic, as there is no objective point in time after which one can definitively state that the criminal authorities violated the requirement for adjudication within a reasonable time. In my study, I am investigating the criteria by which the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) examines compliance with the requirement of reasonable time and how the prolongation of proceedings is treated as a mitigating factor in Hungarian judicial practice.The requirement for the conclusion of criminal proceedings within a reasonable time appears as a component of the right to a fair trial in international human rights documents as well as among the national fundamental rights. The passage of time and the prolongation of criminal proceedings are considered by courts as mitigating factors during sentencing. However, taking these factors into account as mitigating circumstances is not unproblematic, as there is no objective point in time after which one can definitively state that the criminal authorities violated the requirement for adjudication within a reasonable time. In my study, I am investigating the criteria by which the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) examines compliance with the requirement of reasonable time and how the prolongation of proceedings is treated as a mitigating factor in Hungarian judicial practice.The requirement for the conclusion of criminal proceedings within a reasonable time appears as a component of the right to a fair trial in international human rights documents as well as among the national fundamental rights. The passage of time and the prolongation of criminal proceedings are considered by courts as mitigating factors during sentencing. However, taking these factors into account as mitigating circumstances is not unproblematic, as there is no objective point in time after which one can definitively state that the criminal authorities violated the requirement for adjudication within a reasonable time. In my study, I am investigating the criteria by which the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) examines compliance with the requirement of reasonable time and how the prolongation of proceedings is treated as a mitigating factor in Hungarian judicial practice
Allocating investigative resources within the Hungarian police force
Get PDFThe distribution of authority and competence is essential for all organizations, including law enforcement. The main focus is not just the existence of this distribution but its actual functionality, particularly from a professional and scientific standpoint regarding resource allocation. Distributing work tasks involves determining the general investigative authority's capacity to respond to crimes across different geographical areas. The aim is to deploy the appropriate forces and tools to different cases. Efficient distribution of resources is crucial as it impacts the quality of criminal investigation work, minimizes crime-related costs, and mitigates social effects. This study aims to evaluate how well the current regulations and practices match investigative resources with arising tasks and what principles guide the allocation of police forces and assets for law enforcement purposes. The focus is on whether the police's investigative activities are effective socially and scientifically rather than purely from a statistical viewpoint.The distribution of authority and competence is essential for all organizations, including law enforcement. The main focus is not just the existence of this distribution but its actual functionality, particularly from a professional and scientific standpoint regarding resource allocation. Distributing work tasks involves determining the general investigative authority's capacity to respond to crimes across different geographical areas. The aim is to deploy the appropriate forces and tools to different cases. Efficient distribution of resources is crucial as it impacts the quality of criminal investigation work, minimizes crime-related costs, and mitigates social effects. This study aims to evaluate how well the current regulations and practices match investigative resources with arising tasks and what principles guide the allocation of police forces and assets for law enforcement purposes. The focus is on whether the police's investigative activities are effective socially and scientifically rather than purely from a statistical viewpoint.The distribution of authority and competence is essential for all organizations, including law enforcement. The main focus is not just the existence of this distribution but its actual functionality, particularly from a professional and scientific standpoint regarding resource allocation. Distributing work tasks involves determining the general investigative authority's capacity to respond to crimes across different geographical areas. The aim is to deploy the appropriate forces and tools to different cases. Efficient distribution of resources is crucial as it impacts the quality of criminal investigation work, minimizes crime-related costs, and mitigates social effects. This study aims to evaluate how well the current regulations and practices match investigative resources with arising tasks and what principles guide the allocation of police forces and assets for law enforcement purposes. The focus is on whether the police's investigative activities are effective socially and scientifically rather than purely from a statistical viewpoint
Legal regulation on the use of artificial intelligence for national security purposes in Europe
Get PDFThis paper analyses the regulation of the use of AI for national security purposes in Europe. After a brief mapping of most relevant uses of AI for national security purposes, applicable legal framework is analysed. Both the EU AI Act and the Council of Europe's AI Convention provide for broad exceptions regarding the use of AI for national security purposes. This covers activities of both public and private entities acting in the national security domain. In such circumstances, personal data protection law is seen as possessing the most direct impact on the use of AI for national security purposes. In this context, the notion of personal data is explained, emphasizing that any information relating to an identified or identifiable person qualifies as personal data under both the GDPR and Convention 108. The processing of this data, which is broadly defined, can be subject to data protection laws even in national security contexts, provided it meets certain criteria.
The research shows that while there is a lot of uncertainty when it comes to the application of personal data rules to national security situations, existing case-law indicates that application of those rules is not fully excluded. On the contrary, it is to be expected that at least when private entities are involved in data processing operations, personal data protection law might prove to be very effective. Also, it is to be anticipated that the ECHR will play a major role in ensuring that uses of AI for national security purposes remain in line with requirements of democratic society.This paper analyses the regulation of the use of AI for national security purposes in Europe. After a brief mapping of most relevant uses of AI for national security purposes, applicable legal framework is analysed. Both the EU AI Act and the Council of Europe's AI Convention provide for broad exceptions regarding the use of AI for national security purposes. This covers activities of both public and private entities acting in the national security domain. In such circumstances, personal data protection law is seen as possessing the most direct impact on the use of AI for national security purposes. In this context, the notion of personal data is explained, emphasizing that any information relating to an identified or identifiable person qualifies as personal data under both the GDPR and Convention 108. The processing of this data, which is broadly defined, can be subject to data protection laws even in national security contexts, provided it meets certain criteria.
The research shows that while there is a lot of uncertainty when it comes to the application of personal data rules to national security situations, existing case-law indicates that application of those rules is not fully excluded. On the contrary, it is to be expected that at least when private entities are involved in data processing operations, personal data protection law might prove to be very effective. Also, it is to be anticipated that the ECHR will play a major role in ensuring that uses of AI for national security purposes remain in line with requirements of democratic society.This paper analyses the regulation of the use of AI for national security purposes in Europe. After a brief mapping of most relevant uses of AI for national security purposes, applicable legal framework is analysed. Both the EU AI Act and the Council of Europe's AI Convention provide for broad exceptions regarding the use of AI for national security purposes. This covers activities of both public and private entities acting in the national security domain. In such circumstances, personal data protection law is seen as possessing the most direct impact on the use of AI for national security purposes. In this context, the notion of personal data is explained, emphasizing that any information relating to an identified or identifiable person qualifies as personal data under both the GDPR and Convention 108. The processing of this data, which is broadly defined, can be subject to data protection laws even in national security contexts, provided it meets certain criteria.
The research shows that while there is a lot of uncertainty when it comes to the application of personal data rules to national security situations, existing case-law indicates that application of those rules is not fully excluded. On the contrary, it is to be expected that at least when private entities are involved in data processing operations, personal data protection law might prove to be very effective. Also, it is to be anticipated that the ECHR will play a major role in ensuring that uses of AI for national security purposes remain in line with requirements of democratic society
Space defence legal regime in the service of sustainable development
Get PDFThis article examines the challenges and opportunities of military space activities in the context of the sustainable development of space exploration. It investigates the legal frameworks governing military use, focusing on the need for regulations to address risks such as space debris caused by anti-satellite testing, as well as space governance issues. It analyses the role of international, regional (EU), and national laws and policies in achieving a sustainable and responsible exploration of outer space. The role of international and regional bodies such as the UN and EU in achieving sustainability goals is analysed in terms of the synergy between civil and military uses of space.This article examines the challenges and opportunities of military space activities in the context of the sustainable development of space exploration. It investigates the legal frameworks governing military use, focusing on the need for regulations to address risks such as space debris caused by anti-satellite testing, as well as space governance issues. It analyses the role of international, regional (EU), and national laws and policies in achieving a sustainable and responsible exploration of outer space. The role of international and regional bodies such as the UN and EU in achieving sustainability goals is analysed in terms of the synergy between civil and military uses of space.This article examines the challenges and opportunities of military space activities in the context of the sustainable development of space exploration. It investigates the legal frameworks governing military use, focusing on the need for regulations to address risks such as space debris caused by anti-satellite testing, as well as space governance issues. It analyses the role of international, regional (EU), and national laws and policies in achieving a sustainable and responsible exploration of outer space. The role of international and regional bodies such as the UN and EU in achieving sustainability goals is analysed in terms of the synergy between civil and military uses of space
Artificial Intelligence and Human-out-of-the-Loop: Is It Time for Autonomous Military Systems?
Get PDFThis paper systematically presents the disruptive technologies that have emerged on the battlefields in recent decades, as well as those that are yet to come. Special attention is given to current technical capabilities: the status of unmanned vehicle development is briefly outlined, focusing primarily on the most prevalent type, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Additionally, the paper discusses the most common and effective adversarial attack techniques specifically targeting unmanned vehicle technology. The concepts of artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, deep learning, and convolutional neural networks (CNNs) are introduced. The paper illustrates how CNNs aim to tackle tasks that previously required human intelligence, as well as how the enemy attempts to disrupt the development of CNNs during the crucial training and pattern recognition phase, which is essential for later generalisation. The paper demonstrates the advantages of manned-unmanned teaming as a model that effectively utilises disruptive technologies while simultaneously counteracting the effects of the enemy’s measures. Moreover, it analyses the introduction of fully autonomous, AI-driven military systems on the battlefield, outlining the advantages and disadvantages inherent to such a fundamental change. From the evident lack of interest among young people in joining the armed forces to the autonomous systems’ potential to save the lives of soldiers and civilians, there are numerous reasons suggesting that this technology could alleviate the burden on human soldiers. However, concerns remain that autonomous systems may malfunction, potentially reducing rather than increasing the safety of militaries. The paper concludes with recommendations for future steps in the introduction of new technologies, based on their current state of development and the robustness of the AI models they use.This paper systematically presents the disruptive technologies that have emerged on the battlefields in recent decades, as well as those that are yet to come. Special attention is given to current technical capabilities: the status of unmanned vehicle development is briefly outlined, focusing primarily on the most prevalent type, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Additionally, the paper discusses the most common and effective adversarial attack techniques specifically targeting unmanned vehicle technology. The concepts of artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, deep learning, and convolutional neural networks (CNNs) are introduced. The paper illustrates how CNNs aim to tackle tasks that previously required human intelligence, as well as how the enemy attempts to disrupt the development of CNNs during the crucial training and pattern recognition phase, which is essential for later generalisation. The paper demonstrates the advantages of manned-unmanned teaming as a model that effectively utilises disruptive technologies while simultaneously counteracting the effects of the enemy’s measures. Moreover, it analyses the introduction of fully autonomous, AI-driven military systems on the battlefield, outlining the advantages and disadvantages inherent to such a fundamental change. From the evident lack of interest among young people in joining the armed forces to the autonomous systems’ potential to save the lives of soldiers and civilians, there are numerous reasons suggesting that this technology could alleviate the burden on human soldiers. However, concerns remain that autonomous systems may malfunction, potentially reducing rather than increasing the safety of militaries. The paper concludes with recommendations for future steps in the introduction of new technologies, based on their current state of development and the robustness of the AI models they use.This paper systematically presents the disruptive technologies that have emerged on the battlefields in recent decades, as well as those that are yet to come. Special attention is given to current technical capabilities: the status of unmanned vehicle development is briefly outlined, focusing primarily on the most prevalent type, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Additionally, the paper discusses the most common and effective adversarial attack techniques specifically targeting unmanned vehicle technology. The concepts of artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, deep learning, and convolutional neural networks (CNNs) are introduced. The paper illustrates how CNNs aim to tackle tasks that previously required human intelligence, as well as how the enemy attempts to disrupt the development of CNNs during the crucial training and pattern recognition phase, which is essential for later generalisation. The paper demonstrates the advantages of manned-unmanned teaming as a model that effectively utilises disruptive technologies while simultaneously counteracting the effects of the enemy’s measures. Moreover, it analyses the introduction of fully autonomous, AI-driven military systems on the battlefield, outlining the advantages and disadvantages inherent to such a fundamental change. From the evident lack of interest among young people in joining the armed forces to the autonomous systems’ potential to save the lives of soldiers and civilians, there are numerous reasons suggesting that this technology could alleviate the burden on human soldiers. However, concerns remain that autonomous systems may malfunction, potentially reducing rather than increasing the safety of militaries. The paper concludes with recommendations for future steps in the introduction of new technologies, based on their current state of development and the robustness of the AI models they use
Eörsi 100/30, avagy ’Hüperión sorsa’ : Egy nyugalmas sziget a vakhittől a meghasonlásig: Eörsi Gyula a skandináv jogról
Get PDFThe vita of the world-renowned Hungarian professor of Private Law, Gyula Eörsi began a century, and ended three decades ago in the extremely sad and painful circumstances of morbus Alzheimer attacking the mind of a genius. In terms of the productivity, quality, and impact of his œuvre, Eörsi was one of the greatest teachers, researchers, and codifiers of private law of his age, not only in the domestic context but also on the international stage of legal unification (Chairmanship of the UN Diplomatic Conference that created the CISG). This Jubilee Paper analyses a book by Eörsi that seems to be free of the communist ideological ‘straitjacket’ that he voluntarily put on at the beginning of his career, but which ultimately may have ruined his life. This book, which have peculiarly never been reviewed, was published in 1974 in Hungarian language “On Scandinavian Law and Jurisprudence”.A világhírű magyar magánjogászprofesszor, Eörsi Gyula életútja egy évszázaddal ezelőtt kezdődött, és három évtizeddel ezelőtt ért véget a zseniális elmét megtámadó morbus Alzheimer által okozott, rendkívül szomorú és fájdalmas körülmények között. Életműve termékenységét, minőségét és hatását tekintve Eörsi korának egyik legnagyobb hatású magánjogász oktatója, kutatója és kodifikátora volt nemcsak hazai viszonylatban, hanem a jogegységesítés nemzetközi porondján is. Ez a jubileumi írás Eörsi egy olyan könyvét elemzi, amely úgy tűnik, megszabadult a kommunista ideológiai ama ’kényszerzubbonyától’, melyet pályája kezdetén önként vett fel, de amely végül talán romba döntötte életét. A könyv, melyről különös módon soha nem született érdemi recenzió, 1974-ben jelent meg „A skandináv jogról és jogtudományról” címmel
Gondolatok Eörsi Gyula jogászi pályája ‒ különösen szerződési jogi gondolkodása ‒ első tíz esztendejéről
Get PDFAt the beginning of his career, the renowned Hungarian jurist Gyula Eörsi found Hungary under Soviet occupation and caught in the crossfire of ideological struggles at economic, legal and social levels. Increasing Soviet pressure foresaw the setting of the Hungarian state and law on a Soviet course, and thus the rejection of traditional Hungarian private law. Legal scholars, such as Gyula Eörsi, could not escape the above circumstances, and in this particularly challenging period of Hungarian private law he expressed his views in the field of civil law in several works. Some elements of Gyula Eörsi's ideas formulated at that time still carry and may carry valid theses and are the starting points of professional debates, while at the same time a comparison and confrontation between his time and today, in addition to the lessons of legal history, may help the development of private law, respect for its constitutional values and, on that basis, the response to the challenges facing civil law.A neves magyar jogtudós, Eörsi Gyula jogászi pályája kezdetén Magyarország a szovjet megszállás alatt állt és gazdasági, jogi és társadalmi szinten ideológiai harcok kereszttűzében élt. A fokozódó szovjet nyomás előre vetítette a magyar állam és jog szovjet pályára állítását, ezáltal a hagyományos magyar magánjog elvetését. A fenti körülmények alól a jogtudomány képviselői, így Eörsi Gyula sem vonhatta ki magát, aki magyar magánjog e különös kihívásokkal terhelt korszakában a polgári jog területén több munkájában is kifejtette álláspontját. Eörsi Gyula ekkoriban megfogalmazott gondolatainak egyes elemei napjainkban is hordoznak és hordozhatnak érvényes tételeket, szakmai viták kiindulópontjait, ugyanakkor korának és napjainknak összevetése, szembesítése a jogtörténeti tanulságokon túl elősegítheti a magánjogtudomány fejlődését, annak alkotmányos értékeinek tiszteletét, azok alapján a polgári jog előtt álló kihívások megválaszolását
A munkakollektívák jogágazata – Kísérlet a munkavállalói érdekek előtérbe állítására Eörsi Gyula nyomán
Get PDFIn state socialism, economic planning took two forms: Hitler's National Socialism maintained private ownership with state-issued plans and appointed managers, while Lenin-Stalin Soviet socialism involved nationalization and collective labour for businesses. The Hungarian socialist legal system relied on state determinations, and Weltner Andor and Eörsi Gyula criticized the dual collective ownership theory. Eörsi, influenced by Venediktov, extended this theory to all labor law, emphasizing collective participation. In Yugoslavia, democratic centralism featured elected councils. Eörsi proposed a legal framework for worker collectives. Post-communist transition in 1990 aligned Eastern European labour laws with the West, emphasizing individual rights and social protection.Az államszocializmusban a gazdasági tervezésnek két formája volt: a hitleri nemzetiszocializmus állami tervekkel és kinevezett vezetőkkel tartotta fenn a magántulajdont, míg a lenini-sztálini szovjet szocializmus államosítást és kollektív munkát jelentett a vállalkozások számára. A magyar szocialista jogrendszer az állami meghatározásokra támaszkodott, Weltner Andor és Eörsi Gyula pedig a kettős kollektív tulajdon elméletét bírálta. Eörsi, Venediktov hatására, kiterjesztette ezt az elméletet az egész munkajogra, hangsúlyozva a kollektív részvételt. Jugoszláviában a demokratikus centralizmusban a választott tanácsok játszottak szerepet. Eörsi újszerű jogi keretetek javasolt a munkakollektívák számára. A posztkommunista átmenet 1990-ben a kelet-európai munkajogot a nyugatihoz igazította, hangsúlyozva az egyéni jogokat és a szociális védelmet