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Iconography of Crusader Coins
Get PDFეძღვნება აკადემიკოს ზაზა ალექსიძის ხსოვნას (1935 – 2023)/
Dedicated to Memory of Academician Zaza Aleksidze (1935 – 2023)The Jerusalem cross is comprised of four small equilateral yellow crosses positioned
within the branches of a central cross. The first Crusaders are usually depicted
with the Jerusalem Cross, especially Godfrey Bouillon (1060-1100), whose later depictions
consistently feature him accompanied by five crosses. This is historically inaccurate.
Despite popular opinion, the adoption of the five-cross configuration, symbolizing
Jerusalem, occurred relatively later. It is absent from the early phases of the
Crusades and remained entirely unfamiliar in Palestine. Furthermore, the coins minted
in the Kingdom of Jerusalem do not showcase the presence of the five crosses.
The coins minted by the Crusader states exhibit significant diversity. The influence
of their Muslim neighbors, particularly Syria and Egypt, is evident on the coins of the
kings of Jerusalem and the counts of Tripoli, situated further south. In the northern
regions, including Edessa, Antioch, and Cyprus, Byzantine influence held sway. Simultaneously,
it is entirely natural that Crusader currency retained its distinct Western European
characteristics. The interplay among these three political-cultural centers in the
medieval world – European, Byzantine, and Muslim – played a crucial role in shaping
the appearance and variety of Crusader money.
Latin money, stemming from the Carolingian denarius, inherited a concise and
clear design. Typically, the name of the issuer, and often their title, were inscribed in a
circular fashion around the center on the obverse side, while the mintage details were
featured on the reverse. On Crusader money, the predominant religious and heraldic
symbol was a cross of various shapes, prominently depicted at the coin’s center.
Analysis of Crusader coins reveals that there is no consistent pattern in the placement
of bezants, pellets, or crescents within the quadrants of the cross. This suggests
that the Crusaders did not assign significant importance to the quantity and arrangement
of these symbols within the central cross. It is evident that these elements did not bear
any heraldic significance and were primarily employed for decorative purposes.
The five-cross composition, later known as the Jerusalem cross, first appeared on a
coin only in the year 1277. In this year, Charles I of Anjou (1266-85) was crowned King
of Jerusalem, and to commemorate this occasion, he minted a gold coin featuring his
new coat of arms on the reverse side, seamlessly blending the Jerusalem cross with the
Angevin lilies. It’s worth noting that in addition to the small crosses placed in the four
corners, there is also a fifth cross, and this feature is also observed on Charles’s silver
coins. In general, the analysis of his coins suggests that during this period, the five-cross
composition had not yet reached its final and widespread form. In the cantons of the
central cross of various shapes, bezants, wedges, and stars were used in addition to
small crosses. Nevertheless, it is evident that by this time, the large cross surrounded by
small crosses was already being recognized as a symbol associated with Jerusalem, and
its final form was soon to be established.
A classical five-cross composition, with four small crosses in each of the four
corners of the central cross, appears in Cyprus during the rule of Henry II’s brother
Amalric (1306-10) on coins minted in their names, featuring the Jerusalem cross on the
obverse side. On the coins minted only in the name of Amalric, the depiction changes slightly: one half of the heraldic shield on the reverse side of the coin displays the cross
of Jerusalem, while the other half showcases the coat of arms of the Lusignans. This
divided shield is also seen earlier on the coin of Charles of Anjou, where the French
lilies next to the Jerusalem cross represent Charles’s coat of arms, and here the lion
represents the coat of arms of the Lusignans. It seems that this composition was
deliberately chosen by the Lusignans as a strong claim to the kingdom of Jerusalem.
The tradition established by Amalric is continued by Henry II (1285-1306, 1310-24),
whose silver coinage during his second reign (1310-24) features engravings of the cross
of Jerusalem.
In the study of Crusader coins, it is evident that the Jerusalem cross has evolved
over time. The five-cross configuration, symbolizing Jerusalem, came into use later and
was absent from the early phases of the Crusades. This five-cross composition appeared
on a coin in 1277 when Charles I of Anjou was crowned King of Jerusalem. The
composition continued to evolve, with the classical five-cross design appearing in
Cyprus during the rule of Lusignans. This evolution depicted on Crusader coins reflects
the historical and heraldic changes of the Jerusalem Cross and highlights its growing
importance.ნაშრომი შესრულებულია შოთა რუსთაველის ეროვნული სამეცნიერო ფონდის მიერ დაფინანსებული პროექტის ფარგლებშ
Cultural Heritage of Adigeni Municipality (Medieval Fortifications and Secular Buildings)
Get PDFFrom the beginning of 2022, the three-year project "Monuments
of History and Culture of the Samtskhe Region" is being
implemented at the scientific base of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi
State University, which is financed within the framework of the
Georgian Cultural Heritage Research Program of the Shota Rustaveli
National Science Foundation.
The aim of the project “Historical-Cultural Heritage of Samtskhe”
is to study the architectural monuments of Samtshke region
in Georgia (according to the modern administrative division
– Akhaltsike, Aspindza and Adigeni municipalities). Thereis different
kind of buildings in this region: churches, monasteries, castles,
keeps, towers, mosques, darbazi-type living houses, darans,
built in the period until 1921. The main goal of the project is to
record the historical monuments of Samtskhe, make theirs cholarly
analysis, schemes, photo and video recording, to study the
paleographic data etc. The team will prepare and publish the research
concerning each of the monuments.
The main outcome of the project will be bilingual monograph
(Georgian-English) “Historical-Cultural Heritage of Samtskhe”;
analytic papers of encyclopedical type concerning each monument, which will consist of the parts as follows: 1) location
of the building, toponyms, historical-geographical research, 2)
history and historiography of the monument,3) its architectural
and artistical peculiarities, detailed schemes,4) narrative, documental
and epigraphic sources.
Among the secular monuments of cultural heritage of Adigeni
municipality, the most important are: Afieti Castle and Caravanserai,
Kikibo Castle, Ude (Khandaki) Castle, Golden Castle,
Kharkhemi Castle, King Tamar Castle, Melnisi Castle, Bridge over
the Otskhe-river, Makhvilo Castle, Zanavi Castle, Kekhovani Tower,
Village Abastumni bath.კვლევა განხორციელდა შოთა რუსთაველის საქართველოს ეროვნული სამეცნიერო ფონდის ფინანსური მხარდაჭერი
ანტიკური ხანის ხელოვნება: ძველი რომი
Get PDFწინამდებარე ნაშრომი წარმოადგენს ძველი რომის ხელოვნების განვითარების ეტაპობრივ მიმოხილვას და მატერიალური კულტურის უმნიშვნელოვანესი ძეგლების ანალიზს. მასში მოცემულია ეპოქალური სტილის და ცალკეული ნიმუშების მხატვრული თავისებურებების დახასიათება, ხელოვნების ნაწარმოებების იკონოგრაფიული სქემების კვლევა, მათი შინაარსობრივი და ფორმალური ინტერპრეტაცია. ავტორი ეხება ასევე მნიშვნელოვანი ძეგლების კვლევის ისტორიას, მათი რეკონსტრუქციის, ატრიბუციისა და დათარიღების საკითხებს და სხვ. საგანგებოდაა გაანალიზებული ანტიკური ხანის ქართული სახელმწიფოების _ ლაზიკისა და იბერიის _ კულტურული კავშირები რომაულ სამყაროსთან. მსგავსი შინაარსის ნაშრომი, სადაც მთლიანობაშია განხილული ძველი რომაული და ანტიკური ეპოქის საქართველოს ხელოვნების სხვადასხვა ასპექტი, ქართულ ენაზე პირველად ქვეყნდება.
ნაშრომი დაფუძნებულია ავტორის მიერ შემუშავებულ სალექციო კურსზე, რომელიც იკითხება ივ. ჯავახიშვილის სახელობის თბილისის სახელმწიფო უნივერსიტეტის ჰუმანიტარულ მეცნიერებათა ფაკულტეტის ხელოვნებათმცოდნეობის პროგრამის ფარგლებში.
ნაშრომი განკუთვნილია როგორც ხელოვნებათმცოდნეობის, ისტორიის, არქეოლოგიის, კულტუროლოგიისა და სხვა მომიჯნავე დისციპლინების სპეციალისტებისა და სტუდენტებისათვის, ისე დაინტერესებული მკითხველისათვის
Ivane Javakhishvili about Georgian Terminology
Get PDFA nation that does not develop its written language properly
cannot reach the highest level of mental development" -
this quote is from the famous letter of the nine Georgian scientists,
which was published in 1915 in the "People's Newspaper~
N305. Ivane Javakhishvili also signed the letter with the title
"About the Georgian dictionary". According to the authors, the dictionary was the necessary and most important tool that would
contribute to the enrichment of the language. The letter
describes the plan, which, among other things, meant updating
the terminology. Giorgi Kazbegi – the chairman of the Society for
Spreading Literacy among Georgians – was upset by this letter
and the program later published as a book.
Kazbegi considered the creation of bilingual dictionaries to
be the first need, and according to Ivane Javakhishvili, the dictionary
cannot be perfect if we do not work on reviving the Georgian
dictionary material. "How will the compiler of your dictionary
translate these words барабан, Иммунитет, Галерея and
many others, if he has not studied these terms from ancient Georgian
writing? " Does each one makes it up? Then what will be
the significance of such fabricated terms?" Ivane Javakhishvili's
reply to Kazbegi is interesting, along with other points of view,
in that it contains his points of view about the principles of terminological
work. Here and in his other works, Ivane Javakhishvili's
attitude towards artificial terms is clearly visible.
Nevertheless, Ivane Javakhishvili cooperated with the compilers
of the first technical terminological dictionary - Sitkvari -
and gave them some advice. In the Introduction to the dictionary,
they thank Ivane Javakhishvili: "We consider it our duty to
thank Prof. Ivane Javakhishvili, who gave us appropriate help
and explanation for each of our appeals~. At the time, When the
Nikoladze group was excessively criticized by some Georgian
scientists, Ivane Javakhishvili collaborated with them, although
it is also clear that he was essentially in favor of a different terminological
work. It is true that he never and nowhere expressed
a similar point of view about the Nikoladze and their associates,
that Georgian terms are not suitable for bringing Europe
closer or that an international term is more acceptable than a
Georgian one, but, in general, he was against the establishment of artificially created terms, because he thought that correspondents
of a new concepts had to be found in Georgian sources.
He wanted to create a full-fledged ready-made base for Georgian
terminology work from materials collected from all kinds of
literature
Metaphor and its Interpretation Process in Dystopian Fiction
No full texthttps://doi.org/10.52340/PUTK.2023.2346-8149.06This paper explores creative metaphors in dystopian narration. In addition, the implementation of a dystopian creative metaphor by an author and its interpretation process by an audience are examined. The empirical data employed for analysis were taken from “The Handmaid’s Tale” by M. Atwood and the comparative method was used to analyze the findings. Theoretical analysis was based on “Pictorial and Multimodal Metaphor” by Forceville (2006), “Metaphor, Simile, Analogy, and the Brain” by Riddel (2016), and "Reading Utopia, Reading Utopian Readers" by Roemer (2003).
The goals of the paper are as follows:
1. To show the significance and role of metaphor in dystopian narration.
2. To discuss linguistic characteristics of dystopian narration.
3. To reveal the subcategories of dystopian creative metaphors explored in the study and define the specific characteristics of their creating process, expressive forms, and interpretation features.
The empirical data of this paper embrace the relevant examples from the novel and the TV show
Eastern Mediterranean Archaeological Context in South Caucasian Middle Bronze Age Culture
No full textეძღვნება აკადემიკოს ზაზა ალექსიძის ხსოვნას (1935 – 2023)/
Dedicated to Memory of Academician Zaza Aleksidze (1935 – 2023)From the end of III millennium BC and especially the first quarter of the II millennium
BC in South Caucasian dominant cultural landscape, i.e., the Trialeti culture,
evidently became clear the appearance of those artefacts which were characteristic for the
Ancient Near Eastern and, in particular, Eastern Mediterranean region’s archaeological
context. The present article devoted to the detail typological and artistic-stylistic analysis
of the certain type of patterns that are related and sometimes finds a close analogue with
the material of the different cultural centers of the contemporary period Near Eastern
world.
Among these assemblages obviously prevalent are the metal items made by bronze
or, in some case, even precious metals. Appearance of this certain types of valuable
patterns in the South Caucasian region and, consequently, its widespread diffusion allows
us to assume in favor of the most activated communication in the period of the I and II
phases of the Middle Bronze Age, i.e., from the mid III millennium, including the first
half of 17th century BC. This time interval in South Caucasus coincides with the existence
of two different archaeological unites: Bedeni and Trialeti cultures.
South Caucasus which is considered as the most northern periphery of the Near East,
from the remote past was a distinguishable region from the point of intercultural relation
with the neighboring southern civilizations. This relationship becoming especially activate
and, as well of another dimension, from the end of III and first quarter of the II
millennium BC which is corresponds to development of the Trialeti culture. The best
evidences that revealed obvious the cultural communication between the mentioned
regions comes exclusively from the burial sites of this cultural unit. Exactly this culture,
better than any other Bronze Age ones, reveals those innovations and achieves which
seems familiar not only to the local but as well the neighboring Ancient Near Eastern
civilizations. This fact in different years was discussed in various publications of some
Georgian and foreigner scholars (O. Japaridze, E. Gogadze, K. Rubinson, M. Puturidze
and others).
It should be noted that none of the other South Caucasian cultures doesn’t represents
such large quantity of Near Eastern style artifacts as the Trialeti culture of the Middle
Bronze Age.
It is thus significant that the start of the Trialeti culture at the same time represents
the beginning of the cultural orientation of the South Caucasian area toward the Near
Eastern civilizations. Among the impressive number of the different types of precious
burial goods (toreutics, jewelry) of the Trialeti culture, it is possible to single out the main
‘alien’ Near Eastern style items, or some individual features which differs from the
characteristic local artifacts, and have no prototypes in the Caucasian region. Exactly such
artifacts indicate that nearly all achievements and knowledge of producing the certain
fashionable metal items of different styles were known and successfully adopted by the
Middle Bronze Age South Caucasian cultural unites (Bedeni and Trialeti cultures) from
the Near Eastern world. Supposing that transfer and distribution of various modern
technical methods and stylistic fashions point out about the cultural connections between
the above-mentioned regions and, as well, the common knowledge in craft of the
complicate metalworking field.
Currently, given an attempt is to consider the archaeological context of cultural
interrelation of the South Caucasian mentioned cultures with the most south-western
region of the Near East, i.e., Eastern Mediterranean.
Before the consideration of the above-mentioned issue, it seems important specially shortly mention about the existed communication between these regions in previous period, i.e., during the Early Bronze Age archeological culture. This is exactly those
exceptional periods, when beside the other areas of Ancient Near East, the Eastern
Mediterranean and South Caucasus was covered by the entire Kura-Araxes cultural unit.
Consequently, the Early Bronze Age Kura-Araxes culture represents the most
evident, specific and long lasting, nearly one thousand years, period of interrelation
between the South Caucasian and Eastern Mediterranean regions. After this powerful and
widely distributed culture, cultural unity between the interesting to us regions were
interrupted around 2500/2400- 2200 BC years which was the period of quite another
Bedeni culture. After this short period of interruption, the intercultural relationship again
was renovated at the developed, II phase of Middle Bronze Age Trialeti culture. This
famous phenomenon, i.e., the Trialeti culture shows the few types of metal artifacts
obviously well represented in Eastern Mediterranean archaeological context. This kind of
materials indicates in favor of actualization of relationship between these regions. Though,
it might be the direct, instinctive or indirect contacts and quite possible that be realized by
the help and via the other region of the Ancient Near East, like the central Anatolia.
In essence, recording of the Near Eastern cultural tradition’s important archaeological
evidences in large amount of the sites of South Caucasian culture, obviously
have a great sense for understanding the existed relationship in end of III – first half of the
II millennium BC.
Specially should be assigned those group of artifacts which seems the characteristic
material for the Easten Mediterranean region and clearly revealed in Middle Bronze Age
assemblages of Bedeni and Trialeti cultures. Among these materials it is especially
important to note the following artifacts: a) anchor shaped metal axes which used to be as
the insignia for the elite representatives of society (rulers, priests); b) metal, double
handled cauldrons of the utilitarian purpose which were intended for the burial ritual
banquet; c) bronze long swords – rapiers which always were recorded only in rich burial
sites.
In presented article discussed about the close resemblance with the analogical type of
above noted metal production with those from the ancient the Eastern Mediterranean
region and as well the entire Near East. From this point we focused on those metal
weapons and vessels discovered in Byblos, Kül Tepe- Karum Kaneș II layer, #18 rich
merchant’s grave of Assur, Ras Shamra, Abidos, Kheluan, Luristan and Mycenaean #5
shaft-grave. By scholars all of them considered as a close analogue to the items from
South Caucasian Middle Bronze Age various burial sites.
It is an important issue to define the detailed localization and local typological variety
of all these above-mentioned types of metal objects which were distributed not only in
Eastern Mediterranean but as well in other different areas of the Near East and South
Caucasus. Such radiation of these assemblages proves in favor of that, the in South
Caucasian cultural landscape they were distributed from south, exactly the Ancient Near
Eastern region.
Supposing that the all-above-mentioned artifacts indicate that the III – II millenniums
BC South Caucasian Middle Bronze Age Bedeni and Trialeti Cultures were in certain
cultural relationship with the Near Eastern world and, in particular, with Eastern
Mediterranean. Expressing this assumption, we based on the fact of diffusion of these
materials within the last area.
It is essential to indicate that from the different Middle Bronze Age cultural unites of
different phases of it (Bedini, Trialeti, Middle Bronze Age III phase, Tazakend, Sevan-
Uzerlik and Kizil Vank cultures), exactly the famous Trialeti Culture of Brilliant Kurgans is distinguished with the close intercultural relations with Near Eastern world and not the
other ones which very rarely or completely not at all demonstrates such case. The Trialeti
culture is evidently outstanding one from the point of the activation of intercultural
relation, accepting and in some cases transformation of the Near Eastern civilizational
achieves in local, South Caucasian landscape and their clear adaptation.
Considered in the presented article archaeological context provides an important
information and illustrates the intensified international communication and acceptance of
many cultural achievements symptomatic for the Middle Bronze Age above-mentioned
areas.
At the end of III and first quarter of the II millenniums BC, these communications
reached quite another, even the top level. The best evidence which confirms this fact
comes from the burial sites of the famous Trialeti culture, located in different areas
(current Eastern Georgia and Armenia) of its wider distribution.
Valuable patterns of South Caucasian bronze and precious metal samples of this
culture clearly shows the novelty in stylistic and technical methods which mainly were
characteristic for the neighboring southern civilizational unites. Among those artifacts
which find close analogies with the Eastern Mediterranean cultural world obviously might
be separated the anchor-shaped axe, bronze cauldron and bronze rapier (long sword). All
these categories clearly reveal the closest similarity, sometimes even the identity, with
those from the entire Near eastern region.
Beside the already noted metal artifacts, South Caucasian archaeological evidences
of late III – first quarter of the II millennium BC presents the many other different
categories of toreutics and jewelry produced by rich metals which indicates in favor of the
existed trade-exchange or/and cultural interrelations of this area with the outer,
exclusively, Near Eastern world. The Trialeti culture, development of which coincide with
this period is directly related with drastic social stratification and concentration of wealth
by the ruling elite. Together with the considered bronze long swords, anchor-shaped axes
represented the elite’s insignia and cauldrons, the several other precious metal items of
this culture are the clear manifestation of a fairly developed level of toreutics, which
signals the developed phase of high artistic craft in the southern regions of Caucasus. The
origin of the all incomparable precious metal working patterns of the Trialeti culture was
predetermined by several factors, among which we must include increasingly brisk
contacts with the Near East. The highly artistic and fine-crafted prestigious artifacts
clearly shows that Trialetian craftsmen were familiar with the achievements and traditions
of the southern civilizations, one of the important areas of which was the Eastern
Mediterranean region.
In conclusion, it can be pointed out that today it is quite clear that there is an evergrowing
necessity to conduct a detailed study of the complexes of the mid III – first
quarter of the II millenniums of already mentioned cultures in accordance with the Eastern
Mediterranean and more eastward surrounding areas of the Near East
Economic challenges of Georgia
No full text1. BBC. (2022). What Sanctions are being Imposed on Russia over Ukraine Invasion? BBC, September 30.
Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60125659
2. Bugriy, M. (2022). The Oil War: Facing EU Embargo, Russia Targeted Ukraine’s Supplies. Eurasia Review, May
20. Retrieved from https://www.eurasiareview.com/20052022-the-oil-war-facing-eu-embargorussia-targetedukraines-
supplies-analysis/
3. Euronews. (2023). More than 550 global companies are still doing business in Russia. Many are European.
Euronews, January 20. Retrieved from https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2023/01/20/more-than-550-
global-companies-are-still-doing-business-in-russia-many-are-european?
4. Farrer, M. (2022). Ukraine War has Stoked Global Food Crisis that Could Last Years, Says UN. The Guardian,
May 19. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/19/ukraine-war-hasstoked-globalfood-
crisis-that-could-last-years-says-un
5. Isaiah B., (1953). The Hedgehog and the Fox. UK, Weidenfeld & Nicolson
6. Papava, V. (2021). On Pseudo De-Globalization, Silk Road of Global Value Chains and Role of Georgia.
Eurasia Review, October 18. Retrieved from https://www.eurasiareview.com/18102021-on-pseudodeglobalization-
silk-road-of-global-value-chains-and-role-of-georgia-oped/
7. Papava, V. (2022). Pandemic, War and Economic Sanctions: From Turbulent to Confrontational Globalization.
Eurasia Review, May 23. Retrieved from https://www.eurasiareview.com/23052022- pandemic-war-andeconomic-
sanctions-from-turbulent-to-confrontational-globalization-oped/
8. Rodrik, D. (2022). A Better Globalization Might Rise from Hyper-Globalization’s Ashes. Project Syndicate, May
9. Retrieved from https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/after-hyperglobalizationnational-interestsopen-
economy-by-dani-rodrik-2022-05The article examines Georgia's economic challenges in the post-Covid-19 pandemic period. The article shows
that after the pandemic, war, and sanctions, a confrontational globalization was formed in the world, where, despite
the political and economic conflict between the West and Russia, it became necessary for countries to make certain
concessions based on national interests.
Due to the fact that Georgia is a country with an open economy, it has foreign trade relations with the world, it
is important to be involved in the mentioned process and to discover and use the economic prospects that the current
situation offers. For this, first of all, it is necessary to think about the country's economic policy and the people who
create it. This leads to the country's economic policy and the existence of the Economic Advisory Council
Russian policy in the Caucasus in the 90s of the XX century
No full textAs a result of the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia lost
its influence on the geopolitical space of Eurasia, which it had
controlled since the 16th century. In the Caucasus, Russia lost
the most important strategic region – Transcaucasia, which was
under its rule for almost two hundred years. Russia's influence
in the regions of the Black and Caspian Seas has significantly
decreased. Russia has lost significant hydrocarbon resources.
Control of global strategic communications – the world's shortest
transport corridor between Europe and Asia – was also lost.
In the form of Transcaucasia, Russia has lost one of the pillars
of its influence on the processes of the Middle East. All this has significantly weakened Russia's influence in the
North Caucasus, which is closely connected with Transcaucasia
by cultural and historical ties. Also in the North Caucasus the
tendencies of independence and separation from Russia were
revealed with full force. These events manifested themselves already
in the years of "perestroika", and after the collapse of the
Soviet Union, they took the form of a tendency to leave Russia
and form separate state entities.
Thus, the Russian political elite in the Caucasus needed to
solve three main tasks:
– Keeping the North Caucasus as part of Russia
– Restoration of geopolitical influence in Transcaucasia
– Formation of a geopolitical picture in the Middle East based
on the Caucasus
The unprofessionalism and total corruption of the Yeltsin
regime practically precluded balanced and reasonable policy
planning and execution. In fact, during the entire period of his
rule, Yeltsin's regime failed to formulate a conceptually understood
and time-bound foreign policy doctrine, as a result of
which his efforts were reduced to restraining the ongoing processes
in the Caucasus by physical force. Yeltsin's regime was
unable to understand the content of these events and control
their progress. Consequently, Yeltsin's government chose the
easiest and at the same time the most unsuccessful way – the
use of military force. As a result, the crisis of Russian politics
became chronic and led to a military conflict in Chechnya. This
conflict turned into a full-scale local war that put Russia on the
verge of territorial disintegration.
Yeltsin's regime acted similarly in Transcaucasia. Yeltsin's
government countered the clearly defined European orientation
of Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan with economic, political and
military efforts. Special attention was paid to the separatism of individual regions included in these republics. As a result, political
tensions in Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia and Tskhinvali escalated
to a full-scale military conflict, resulting in significant
human casualties and territorial losses.
The foreign policy of Yeltsin's government was significantly
influenced by the internal destructive processes taking place in
Russia itself, which in the second half of the 1990s turned into a
permanent and comprehensive crisis. These events shook the
foundations of Russian statehood. However, even in such unstable
conditions, the rigid foreign policy of the Yeltsin regime
towards the Caucasus did not change, and no steps were taken
to reach a mutually acceptable compromise.
The main role in these processes was played by the mentality
of both Yeltsin's closest entourage and the Russian political
elite in general, which a priori excluded the concept of Transcaucasian
independence and considered it as a temporarily lost
Russian region.
Thus, Russia's foreign policy in the Caucasus in the 1990s
confirmed the permanent nature of the imperial state tradition,
which remains unchanged despite changes in social formation,
state structure, and historical era
Directions for improving the investment environment in Georgia
No full text1. გელაშვილი.მ. „საინვესტიციო პოლიტიკა“; თბ, 2012;
2. კაკულია ე. ფინანსები და საინვესტიციო პოლიტიკა. თბილისი 2010;
3. სიხარულიძე დ, ჭარაია ვ, პირდაპირი უცხოური ინვესტიციები: თეორია და საქართველოს
გამოცდილება. თბ., 2018;
4. ქოქიური ლ, საინვესტიო მენეჯმენტი და პოლიტიკა, თსუ, თბ., 2012;
5. John H. Dunning, The ecleetic paradigm as an envelope for economic and business theories of
MNE activity, International Business Review 9 (2000)p.p 163-190;
6. Cheng, L.K, and Y.L. Kwan, 2000, “what Are the Determinats of the Location of Foreign Direct
investment? The Chines Experience,” Journal of International Econimics, vol.51, No.2 (August).
PP. 379- 400.
ინტერნეტ წყაროები:
7. საქართველოს ფინანსთა სამინისტრო-https://mof.ge/News/8726
8. სახელწიფო სტატისტიკის ეროვნული სამსახური-https://www.geostat.ge/
9. საქართველო საერთაშორისო რეიტინგში
http://www.economy.ge/uploads/publications/economy_6079862260fa6b33358960.32473667.pdf
10. საქართველოს საფონდო ბირჟა-https://gse.ge/
11. საქართველოს ეროვნული ბანკი-https://nbg.gov.ge/statistics/statistics-data
12. კორუფციის აღქმის ინდექსი-
http://www.economy.ge/uploads/files/2017/reitingebi/cpi_2018_geo_.pdf
13. გაცვლითი სავალუტო კურსები-https://www.lari.ge/index.php?do=currency/chart&code=USD
14. http://www.economy.ge/uploads/publications/economy_6079862260fa6b33358960.32473667.pdf
Investopedia-https://www.investopedia.com/Today, direct foreign investments are important for the economic development of Georgia. In the
conditions of globalization, many countries are trying to create an appropriate investment environment and be
able to attract capital, as it is related to the economic development of the country. We can say that Georgia has
implemented important reforms in the country. Since 2003, 50 reforms have been carried out. The reforms are
related to stimulation of foreign direct investments and their protection. Georgia has the potential to attract
foreign direct investments and in this way will contribute to the stability of the country's national currency. It
should be noted that Georgia occupies an important place in the world rankings. As a result of the data
analysis, we can conclude that Foreign Direct Investments significantly affects the stability of the country's
economy. In the dynamics of the years, the hindering factors affecting the inflow of investments in Georgia are
clearly visible. Georgia is attractive for EU countries. It is from these countries that the inflow of investments is
recorded. Also, the following factors contribute to the attraction of foreign direct investments: stable political
and economic environment, flexible and efficient tax system, free trade regime, geographical location and
others. It is significant that, if not for the global pandemic, Georgia would have improved the volume of
investments in the following years as well, as the dynamics of foreign direct investments allows. It is important
to mention the Association Agreement, which opened a new way for Georgia to attract capital. The
geographical situation of Georgia is an important advantage. It is a specific and distinguishing feature of the
country.
In order to get more benefits from foreign direct investments, it is necessary to determine the directions
that can have a greater impact on the health of the country's economy. It is advisable to finance research for
this. Because investment in research and development allows for more knowledge
CAUCASIAN ALBANIAN VOCABULARY (HISTORICAL-COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS)
No full textThe common Lezgian vocabulary in the Caucasian Albanian includes
the words denoting parts of a human’s body, relatives, activities, status
and other words relating to the human being as well as the words
denoting fl ora, fauna, building, food, units of time, inanimate creations,
natural phenomena, pronouns (personal, demonstrative, refl exive,
interrogative), numerals (from one to nine, ten, twenty, hundred),
adjectives, adverbs, verbs, deverbative nominals…
In the sound-correspondences the Caucasian Albanian and Udi,
with few exceptions, are represented with similar refl exes. Basic
phonematic processes as a result of which the phonological systems
of Caucasian Albanin and Udi, took place identically. In aff ricates the
following phonetic changes should be underlined: weak (glottalized
as well as non-glottalized) aff ricates were lost in anlaut and inlaut.
In Udi this process was completed, but in Caucasian Albanian it was
in the stage of completion. In auslaut the spirantization of weak
non-glottalized aff ricates took place, as regards the weak glottalized
aff ricates, they didn’t undergo changes. With respect to the intensive
aff ricates, they are preserved in both languages due to the fact that
correlation has been demolished according to intensivity. Additionally,
the spirantization of voiced aff ricates took place in both languages.
Lateral aff ricates were transformed into corresponding uvular aff ricates
(except *, which underwent spirantization).
Plosives are basically preserved unchangeably, except a *g sound
which as a rule occurs in Caucasian Albanian and Udi as ḳ. In spirants two basic changes took place. Correlation according to
intensivity has been demolished and lateral spirants were changed into
unvoiced uvular spirants (x).
Sonors are basically preserved unchangeably