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“The story we have together”: Written and Oral Storytelling in Juan José Saer’s The Witness and Leslie Marmon Silko’s Ceremony
No full textThis thesis explores the tension between written and oral storytelling in Juan José Saer’s The Witness, a novel about the narrator’s ten-year stay amongst a group of Indians in the 16th century, and Leslie Marmon Silko’s Ceremony, a novel that recounts Tayo’s recovery from injuries sustained during World War II and his disillusionment with his Pueblo and white ancestry. While each text prioritizes one medium or the other, they also manage to surmount the difficulties inherent in both kinds of texts. Issues of written and oral texts, Western and Native American conceptions of authorship, and language itself are discussed in relation to Plato, Derrida, Butler, and Silko’s other work. An examination of Robert Hass’s “Meditation at Lagunitas” unifies the themes from both novels to argue that the limitations of written and oral texts can be surpassed and that we must salvage language, even if our system of semiotics is imperfect. Our human need for connection is so vital that the difficulties posed by medium and language may be overcome
Blood is Thicker than Water: A Genealogy of Water in Nation-State Building
Get PDFThis work explores the multifaceted relationship between India and Pakistan, starting with India’s very recent decision to renegotiate the terms of the Indus Waters Treaty of 1960 between the two countries. This treaty, considered to be a time-tested hallmark of peace on the Indian subcontinent, is particularly heralded by mediators like the World Bank. This desire for peace is confronted with the reality of border skirmishes and conflicts over Kashmir, a state through which the Indus River flows. Accordingly, I interrogate the interactions between various political actors over the Indus Waters themselves, specifically focusing on partition and the subsequent period that led up to the signing of the Indus Waters Treaty. This piece seeks to understand the role of nature in cohering international, national and subnational identity. Specifically, I focus on the two countries’ historical conflicts over water as well as sovereign claims to water in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir, which are regions that must balance domestic priorities with the looming national interests of India and Pakistan. By linking water to the economic, cultural, and social language that comprises political imagination and identity, I hope to reveal new insights about how the relationship between nature and humanity has transformed from mutual cooperation to one of commodification and displacement
The Realization Rule as a Legal Standard
Get PDF The realization “rule” in tax law is better characterized as a legal standard. This characterization matters after the Supreme Court’s decision in Moore v. United States, which sets the stage for future courts to decide that the Constitution mandates realization—an identifiable event before accrued income is reportable by taxpayers. The stakes of a constitutional realization requirement are underappreciated. Because current statutory law embeds realization as a background principle, a constitutional realization requirement would operate as a taxpayer-initiated antiabuse doctrine—a sword that taxpayers could use selectively to invalidate parts of the Internal Revenue Code and Treasury Regulations. This novel constitutional tool has adverse, and underappreciated, implications for the U.S. tax system’s structure and complexity. Through the lens of the longstanding academic literature on legal rules and standards, the dangers of a constitutional realization requirement extend beyond top-down risks to individual Internal Revenue Code provisions or, as the Moore majority posited, entire taxing regimes. Instead, a constitutional realization requirement threatens to erode federal income tax law from the bottom up, through incremental public and private challenges to the fundamental mechanics of taxation. Realization and nonrealization permeate business entity taxation in deeply technical ways. In these areas, a constitutional realization requirement may facilitate aggressive private planning, undermine the law’s coherence, and dampen reform efforts. Even Moore’s whisper of a constitutional realization requirement ventures into poorly charted territory, with potentially detrimental consequences that may prove difficult to unwind. Moreover, a constitutional realization requirement portends increased complexity in tax law. Government-asserted antiabuse doctrines constrain complexity by allowing lawmakers to write simpler rules that cover high-frequency transactions. Low-frequency transactions, including those that reflect inappropriate tax planning, are addressed through (and discouraged by) open-ended standards in the enforcement process. As a taxpayer-initiated antiabuse doctrine, a constitutional realization requirement would have the reverse effect, increasing complexity by increasing the frequency of tax-planned transactions, encouraging more costly government responses to taxpayer abuse, and changing the dynamics of enforcement. The resulting complexity would be systemic—and could increase over time
Global Minimum Taxation: A Strategic Approach for Developing Countries
Get PDF The world has seemingly embraced the altruistic idea of ensuring a minimum level of corporate income taxation worldwide, consolidating a “benefits for all” narrative by which both developed and developing countries apparently gain. However, this altruistic narrative proves to be quite unrealistic for many developing countries. As argued in this article, the perceived benefits of a global minimum corporate income tax in developing countries rest exclusively upon three unconvincing premises. These include the assumption that all corporate income tax incentives provided by developing countries are equally inefficient, the idea that all developing countries can seamlessly transition from corporate income tax competition to alternative forms of tax and non-tax competition, and most notably, the notion that supporting or opposing a global minimum corporate income tax could either boost or diminish tax revenue for developing countries. This article urges a departure from these premises and elaborates upon three strategic recommendations for developing countries, which include: first, viewing a global minimum corporate income tax as a concept divorced from the assumption of revenue gain or loss; second, using the global minimum corporate income tax as an opportunity to reassess their tax and non-tax incentives, encompassing alternative competitive strategies; and third, striving for simplicity and ease of administration in designing and implementing a minimum tax approach. In doing so, developing countries could perhaps find an opportunity to refine their general action plan to attract foreign direct investment (FDI) more effectively while they still try to ride the wave of minimum global corporate income taxation that the world seems to be in
Defining Global Interconnectedness: The Central Role of the Medieval Middle East in Afro-Eurasian Networks
No full textShifting Paradigms: Rethinking Autism Beyond the Medical Model
Get PDFPhoto ID 117847165© Mohamad Faizal Ramli|Dreamstime.com
INTRODUCTION
In our cosmic narrative, for centuries we believed the Earth held the universe's center, a belief that shifted with evidence and transformed our understanding of our cosmic place. Correspondingly, paradigms surrounding autism have been shaped by medical assumptions that label it a condition, a disorder, or even a tragedy. Just as our understanding of celestial perceptions evolved, that Earth was not at the center of the universe, it is time for a seismic shift in how we perceive and address autism.
ANALYSIS
Venturing into autism research, we see the prevailing medical paradigm that defines Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) as a developmental disability caused by neurological differences.[1] Social communication, repetitive behaviors, language, movement skills, cognitive abilities, and emotional reactions—all cast as deficits.1 This narrative, embraced by researchers, medical professionals, and society, serves as the foundation of our current understanding.
Yet, delving deeper unveils a counter-narrative—one not etched by researchers but articulated by those living with autism. This narrative introduces us to the neurodiversity paradigm, a revolutionary lens that sees autism as a part of the rich tapestry of human neurological development, fostering a stable cognitive landscape.[2] It posits that there is no singular "healthy" brain; and no definitive way of neurocognitive functioning.2 Shockingly, although this perspective is more inclusive, portraying autistic people as crucial contributors to humanity, it remains the more controversial model in society.
Contrasting with the classical medical view that treats autism as a disease to be eradicated, the neurodiversity paradigm challenges the notion of normalizing society and underscores the importance of recognizing autism as an advancement. Without it, we would lose invaluable perspectives, strengths in attention to detail, visual perception, creative and artistic talents, mathematical and technical abilities, and expertise in ‘niche’ areas.[3] Asserting that every form of neurological development holds equal validity, deserving of respect and human rights, the neurodiversity paradigm counters the deficit mindset perpetuated by the traditional medical view.
The repercussions of our medical-centric assumptions extend beyond perception; they infiltrate the very fabric of societal structures. Autism is labeled a disability. But is it autism that disables individuals, or is it the societal environment that excludes and alienates cognitive diversity? The traditional medical model points fingers at individuals, placing the onus on the differently abled person, not the disabling environments.
For example, our societal perspective on disability is largely framed by the medical model, which views disability as an individual problem. According to this model, the disability is located within the person experiencing it—within individuals like me.[4] For instance, I often find myself becoming excessively overstimulated in places like department stores. The bustling environment—loud, brightly lit, unpredictable, and crowded—is a sensory challenge. Following the medical model attributes my struggle in department stores to a perceived problem with the way my brain processes sensory inputs, attributing it to my autism.
The consequences of the medical model are far-reaching and profound, particularly in shaping our understanding of autism. This perspective places undue blame on those with autism and directs the focus of research toward "curing" autism rather than addressing societal structures that contribute to exclusion and alienation.
One glaring example of this misguided approach is the predominant focus of autism research on finding a cure, as seen in 2020 with a major research theme centered around gene therapies aimed at altering the genetic factors associated with autism-related conditions.[5] Even influential organizations like Autism Speaks, until 2016, subscribed to the notion of seeking a cure.[6] Their evolution, acknowledging the need to listen to the lived experiences of autistic individuals, led to a shift in their mission—from searching for a cure to promoting advocacy, support, understanding, and acceptance.6
This shift highlights the importance of moving away from the medical model. Instead, we should adopt more inclusive models like the neurodiversity or social model of disability, which are rooted in the idea that neurological differences, including autism, are natural variations of the human brain. Listening to the voices of those with autism and embracing the social model of disability allows us to recognize that disabling factors often reside in societal structures, not within the individuals themselves. This paradigm shift is crucial for fostering an inclusive society that values and accommodates cognitive diversity.
For instance, when we enter the social model of disability—an alternative lens that shifts the blame from the individual to the environment, it views disability not as a characteristic but as an action done to individuals by society4. In this model, going to a department store is not a struggle for me because there is something inherently wrong with me, but it is a struggle because the environment around me does not cater to my diverse needs. Imagine if our world, including department stores, were designed with neurodiversity in mind—quiet, dimly lit, predictable, and spacious. Neurodivergent individuals would still be cognitively different, but their surroundings would not disable them.
Adopting the social model of disability would catalyze shifts in research and attitudes toward autism, reflecting the transformative changes observed in the department store examples. Rather than focusing on changing autistic individuals to fit societal norms, the emphasis would shift to enhancing the lives of neurodivergent people by advocating for structural changes in society. This shift aims to foster inclusivity while preserving individuals' authenticity and embracing their unique differences.
Autistic individuals are not seeking a cure for autism because our neurodivergent way of thinking is integral to our identity. Yet, the considerable funding directed toward researching autism's causes for prevention or a "cure" underscores a lack of consideration for our voices in deciding how research funds are utilized. The emphasis on normalization, a cornerstone of the medical model's view of autism, prioritizes societal desires over the well-being of autistic individuals already part of our society. It is imperative to recognize this flaw in research that aims to cure autism, as it risks genetic research for eugenic purposes, necessitating regulation by the autistic community.[7] Redirecting resources from the pursuit of an unwanted cure to research supporting and empowering autistic people to lead fulfilling lives is essential.
This redirection involves investing in communication research, offering tools such as communication boards, picture exchange communication systems, speech-generating devices, or sign language for nonverbal or speech-challenged autistic individuals, giving them a voice in our society.[8] Community living research, centered on community inclusion programs, not only provides services but also educates and reinforces accommodations for daily activities such as in schools, workplaces, or even in department stores as stated in the example.[9] Attention to support services for autistic individuals and their families, including residential and day support programs, respite, recreation, and transportation, is crucial.[10] A commitment to promoting lifelong support for autistic individuals necessitates advocating for caregiver support, home and community-based services, financial planning resources, and more.10 Additionally, research aiming to identify qualitative results of adaptation and modification strategies to support inclusive education for autistic students is paramount at school and classroom levels.[11] Research to improve healthcare quality and the healthcare system for autistic individuals is also essential, as they face shorter lifespans and worse health than non-autistics.[12] All these research initiatives align with the principles of the social model of disability.
However, as a society that does not follow the social model; the bulk of our understanding of autism is rooted in research driven by medical assumptions and paradigms. In 2022, the United States allocated 225 million out of nearly $2.5 billion dedicated to ASD research—was channeled towards services-related research.14 This includes critical areas such as improving accessibility and quality of services in the community, characterizing understudied groups, policy development, dissemination, and implementation.14 This glaring discrepancy highlights a diminished emphasis on services research in funding decisions, revealing an imbalanced focus on biological and risk factor research, aiming to eliminate differences rather than seeking ways to integrate accommodations that allow autistic individuals to authentically express themselves within societal structures.
The consequence of this skewed prioritization is evident in distressing statistics. Autism affects about 1 in 100 children worldwide, and yet 85% of college-educated adults on the autism spectrum face unemployment—twice the rate of their non-autistic peers.[16],[17] 7 out of 10 autistic individuals wrestle with mental health conditions, including anxiety, depression, ADHD, or OCD.[18] Alarmingly, the suicide rate among autistic individuals is three times higher than the general population.[19] Similarly, individuals with autism have an average life expectancy of 54 years, a staggering 16 years less than the average age of mortality for the general population.[20] And we deserve better.
These disheartening realities underscore the urgent need for a paradigm shift in our approach to autism within society. It is crucial to recognize that masking autistic traits is not the optimal outcome for individuals with autism. In fact, hiding autistic traits has been linked to worse mental health outcomes and increased suicidality in autistic adults.15 Services and support systems are required to enable autistic individuals to lead long, happy, and fulfilling lives while respecting their right to be authentically autistic. Embracing neurodiversity is not only a matter of ethical consideration and benefit for autistic individuals but also cultivates progress, acceptance, and overall societal growth for all.
CONCLUSION
The call for change is clear—we need research initiatives led by autistic individuals, addressing the questions that matter most to the community. We need more autistic individuals in the medical profession to advocate for improvements in the medical perspective. Having only 1% of autistic individuals in the medical profession is no longer enough.[21] Just as the sun is not the center of our universe, individuals with autism are not a tragedy. They deserve a future built on understanding, inclusion, and support.
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[1] “Signs and Symptoms of Autism Spectrum Disorders.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Last modified, 28 Mar. 2022, www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/signs.html#:~:text=Autism%20spectrum%20disorder%20(ASD)%20is,%2C%20moving%2C%20or%20paying%20attention.
[2] Robinson, John Elder. “What Is Neurodiversity?” Psychology Today, Sussex Publishers, 7 Oct. 2013, www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/my-life-aspergers/201310/what-is-neurodiversity.
[3] “Focus on Strengths as Well as Challenges.” Autistica, 17 Oct. 2019, www.autistica.org.uk/news/focus-on-strengths-and-challenges.
[4] “Office of Developmental Primary Care.” Medical and Social Models of Disability | Office of Developmental Primary Care. Accessed 26 Oct. 2023, https://odpc.ucsf.edu/clinical/patient-centered-care/medical-and-social-models-of-disability.
[5] “Hot Topics in Autism Research, 2020.” Spectrum, 3 Mar. 2023, www.spectrumnews.org/features/hot-topics-in-autism-research-2020/#:~:text=Gene%20scene,be%20administered%20early%20in%20life.
[6] “Questions and Answers.” Autism Speaks. Accessed 26 Oct. 2023, www.autismspeaks.org/autism-speaks-questions-answers-facts#:~:text=It%20was%20the%20right%20decision,research%20for%20the%20autistic%20community.
[7] “Research.” Autistic Self Advocacy Network, 31 Aug. 2023, autisticadvocacy.org/research.
[8] “7 Autism Behavior and Communication Strategies.” National University, 23 Sept. 2021, www.nu.edu/blog/7-autism-behavior-and-communication-strategies/#:~:text=Strategy%20%231%3A%20Using%20Communication%20Boards,photographs%2C%20illustrations%2C%20or%20symbols.
[9] “Inclusion: Ensuring Access for Everyone.” Autism Speaks. Accessed 26 Oct. 2023, www.autismspeaks.org/tool-kit-excerpt/inclusion-ensuring-access-everyone.
[10] “Support for Family Members.” Autism Speaks. Accessed 26 Oct. 2023, www.autismspeaks.org/autism-support-family-help#:~:text=People%20with%20autism%20and%20the,%2C%20recreation%2C%20transportation%20and%20others.
[11] Petersson-Bloom, Linda, and Mona Holmqvist. “Strategies in Supporting Inclusive Education for Autistic Students-A Systematic Review of Qualitative Research Results.” Autism & Developmental Language Impairments, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 21 Sept. 2022, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9620685/.
[12] Weir, Elizabeth, et al. “Autistic Adults Have Poorer Quality Healthcare and Worse Health Based on Self-Report Data - Molecular Autism.” BioMed Central, BioMed Central, 26 May 2022, molecularautism.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13229-022-00501-w.
[13] Mikulic, Matej. “Research Funding for Autism by U.S. NIH 2011-2024.” Statista, 2 June 2023, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1237464/autism-research-funding-united-states-by-nih/#:~:text=In%20fiscal%20year%202022%2C%20research,U.S.%20dollars%20back%20in%202016.
[14] Cervantes, Paige E, et al. “Trends over a Decade in NIH Funding for Autism Spectrum Disorder Services Research.” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 10 Oct. 2020, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8035332/#:~:text=Funding%20for%20treatment%20development%2Fevaluation,averaging%20%2410.2%20million%20per%20year.
[15] For Whose Benefit? - Autistic Self Advocacy Network. Accessed 26 Oct. 2023, https://autisticadvocacy.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/ACWP-Ethics-of-Intervention.pdf.
[16] “Data & Statistics on Autism Spectrum Disorder.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 4 Apr. 2023, www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/data.html.
[17] Peralta, Paola. “85% of Adults on the Autism Spectrum Are Unemployed - and Hiring Practices May Be to Blame.” Employee Benefit News. 10 Aug. 2023, www.benefitnews.com/news/how-to-create-equitable-workplace-experiences-for-autistic-talent#:~:text=85%25%20of%20adults%20on%20the,practices%20may%20be%20to%20blame.
[18] “Autism and Mental Health.” Mental Health Foundation. Accessed 26 Oct. 2023, www.mentalhealth.org.uk/explore-mental-health/a-z-topics/autism-and-mental-health#:~:text=Just%20like%20everyone%2C%20autistic%20people,%2Dcompulsive%20disorder%20(OCD).
[19] Welch, Ashley. “Rate of Suicide 3 Times Higher for Autistic People.” Healthline, Healthline Media, 2021, www.healthline.com/health-news/rate-of-suicide-3-times-higher-for-autistic-people.
[20] Elemy. “Why Do People with Autism Have a Lower Average Lifespan?” Elemy, 2021, https://elemy.wpengine.com/autism/average-lifespan.
[21] “Doctors with Autism Speak out against Stigma.” Spectrum, 10 Mar. 2023, www.spectrumnews.org/news/doctors-with-autism-speak-out-against-stigma/#:~:text=The%20condition%20is%20typically%20diagnosed,worry%20they%20will%20be%20stigmatized
Brain Organoids, the Path Forward?
Get PDFPhoto by Maxim Berg on Unsplash
INTRODUCTION
The brain is one of the most foundational parts of being human, and we are still learning about what makes humans unique. Advancements in technology have allowed for the creation of miniature brain structures using pluripotent stem cells to mimic the embryonic human brain. These stem cells randomly accumulate into brain-like structures, consisting of tens of millions of cells spanning a few millimeters wide.[1] As brain organogenesis becomes more complex, these models may begin to exhibit consciousness, pain, and sentience. If these organoids become more complex, it is necessary to question the rights of brain organoids and the ethics of working with brain-like structures that begin to mirror our own identities. Overall, brain organoid usage has remarkable benefits that outweigh the negative outcomes. However, there must be continued exploration of the moral ramifications of greater levels of consciousness that brain organoids may exhibit in the future.
ANALYSIS
Knowing whether brain organoids should be used in research requires understanding what constitutes a conscious brain and how to classify a brain organoid. Due to its modeling of a human embryonic brain, it is helpful to explore the ethical considerations researchers should take both currently and as this field of research progresses. This philosophical question concerns the concept of self-identification and what it means to be human. It is also important to explore the levels of autonomy the brain should have due to its core role in how humans define themselves. As brain organogenesis technologies advance and facilitate the development of more complex brain organoids, this question becomes especially relevant. It blurs the line of ethical human subject research and has the power to alter the decisions that the scientific community makes about human-based research. In the brain organoid's current relatively undeveloped state, large bodies of evidence suggest that brain organoids are suitable and viable alternatives for research. Brain organogenesis research aids in various brain-based medical conditions, such as neurodegenerative diseases, developmental disorders, and Zika virus-infected fetuses.[2] Additionally, it allows for an alternative and potentially ethical approach to animal testing in research.[3]
I. Brain Organoids
Brain organoids are created from randomized self-clustering pluripotent stem cells using signaling factors, essentially modeling the human brain during its embryonic stage.[4] These models can aid in the understanding of both brain development and disorders. This includes a more comprehensive understanding of hereditary brain abnormalities, human evolution, neurological diseases, and psychiatric disorders.[5] Brain organoids replicate many features of human brain development during the embryonic stage, both structurally and functionally however, gyrification, cerebral cortex formation, and neuronal wiring are not fully developed.[6] This creates a relatively accurate novel model that is helping forge the field of neuroscience and strives toward a more accurate representation of the human brain.
II. Brain Organoids Deficiencies
Brain organoids provide an innovative way to enhance current neuroscience; however, opposing viewpoints would argue about the brain organoids deficiencies such as the several major differences between organoids and an embryonic brain. Firstly, this includes a lack of vascularization, causing cells to eventually die in the center.[7] Additionally, current methods only allow for the growth of neurons, excluding microglia, endothelial cells, blood cells, and immune cells, further altering an accurate neural environment.[8] Lastly, there is a significant amount of variation between the brain organoids based on the laboratory procedure and stem line used.[9] While brain organoids are excellent models, they are unable to accurately represent the adult human brain, and current research methods introduce a high level of mutations.[10]
III. Benefits of Brain Organoid Research
Brain organoid research should be pursued because it serves as an alternative to animal-based research, helps us understand the differences between hominid-like species, and advances the study of neurodegenerative diseases.[11] Moreover, while the formation of the brain is representative of the human brain, it lacks full complexity, including networking and complete vascularization.[12] This evidence suggests that brain organoids are not yet sentient, making them important replicas and alternatives to animal testing. Modern medicine research routinely uses animals as test subjects which is problematic because animals cannot provide informed consent, and guidelines often focus on harm minimization with little regard for animal welfare as long as it benefits human research.[13] Seeking alternatives, such as the development of brain organoids, could greatly minimize animal suffering and serve as ethical alternatives.
Brain organoids provide a way to study neurological disorders and diseases with a more physiologically accurate model. Currently, in the field of neurodegenerative diseases, many preclinical models fail to accurately represent the diseases they work with.[14] For instance, mouse models of Alzheimer's disease are genetically modified to overexpress high levels of human genetic mutations, however, the Alzheimer's phenotype is not expressed as expected.[15] Therefore, brain organoids have been considered the most ideal model for Alzheimer’s disease because they allow researchers to observe Aβ deposits, Tau tangles, and neuronal degeneration.[16] Brain organoids have been far more accurate representations than both the mice and two-dimensional neuron models.[17] In addition to Alzheimer’s studies, investigations about the Zika virus are better understood by examining the mechanisms in the brain organoids that resulted in microcephaly.[18] These studies more effectively capture the structure of the fetal brain during the first and second trimesters of pregnancy and more efficiently deconstruct the formation of microcephaly through the observation of neural progenitor cells and other cellular structures.[19]
Furthermore, studying brain organoids enhances our understanding of human brain development in comparison to other hominid-like species, such as one of our closest relatives – Neanderthals. It reveals some of the underpinnings of human evolution and the brain-based advantages that gave humans survival advantages over other hominid-like species. Neanderthal brain organoid research has shown that Neanderthal organoids have an irregular "popcorn-like" shape compared to the spherical shape of human brain organoids.[20] The differences in organoid shape suggest contrasts in their neuronal networks, potentially altering social abilities.[21] This research solidifies the role of the NOVA1 gene in socialization and provides further insight into both autism and schizophrenia.[22]
IV. Brain Organoids Consciousness
As technology becomes more advanced, brain organoids may eventually exhibit a higher level of consciousness, intelligence, and sentience. Currently, the use of brain organoids is regulated by the Embryonic/Human Stem Cell Research Oversight Committee (E/HSCRO) due to the stem cells used to generate them.[23] If brain organoids become more complex, ethical considerations will need to be expanded.[24] It can be inferred that researchers currently treat brain organoids similar to animal research, as both have reduced abilities to consent to research, allowing greater research freedom. Recent studies indicate that human cerebral organoids exhibit the same brain neuron connectivity and electroencephalogram (EEG) patterns as those collected from preterm babies.[25] This data supports the idea that brain organoids may eventually experience pain or even basic forms of consciousness.[26]Those in opposition to brain organoid research would argue that research supports the claim that brain organoids have achieved a high level of sentience and that experimental research, even at this stage, may be considered unethical.
Defining the concept of self is crucial for classifying brain organoids and distinguishing the line between ethical and unethical research. Examining how we perceive self allows us to understand how research will be conducted with brain organoids. In Being and Nothingness, Jean-Paul Sartre states that when someone looks at him, it supports the idea of his existence and sense of self.[27] Since the body would need to be seen within the gaze of another person, it also suggests that people would need to have a body to have an existence or an identity. Therefore, while this primitive brain state may have rudimentary consciousness, it does not have true existence due to a lack of a body. This would exclude the regulations imposed on human and animal research and allow for a laissez-faire approach to the research aside from stem cell regulation. In opposition, Schermer argues that “When we give up mind, as if that is even possible, we are nothing and nowhere.”[28] The creation of a brain organoid is the creation of a mind and therefore even the potential creation of the human self. Human research regulations would then be responsible for brain organoids in their more developed states.
CONCLUSION
The use of brain organoids is promising and expands our understanding of the brain and how it is affected by other neurological factors, such as disease or genetics. There are significant benefits in advancing our comprehension of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s, the Zika virus, and its effect on the fetus, and gaining a better understanding of our prehistorical brain evolution and development. Moreover, creating brain organoids is an efficient and potentially ethical alternative to animal testing. However, further research into brain organoids has suggested that there is a baseline level of consciousness that mirrors a human embryo, and there are still deficiencies in brain organoids that don’t perfectly replicate the human brain. Considering the rapidly progressing technology, ethical principles must also be evaluated to determine what it means to be human and where to draw the line of ethical research on more developed brain-like models. Overall, in the current state of brain organoids, researchers should work to harness brain organoids to their fullest potential to further contribute to the fields of neuroscience.
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[1] Chan, W. K., Griffiths, R., Price, D. J., & Mason, J. O. (2020). Cerebral organoids as tools to identify the developmental roots of autism. Molecular autism, 11(1), 58. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-020-00360-3; Lavazza A. (2020). Human cerebral organoids and consciousness: a double-edged sword. Monash bioethics review, 38(2), 105–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40592-020-00116-y
[2] Chan, W. K., Griffiths, R., Price, D. J., & Mason, J. O. (2020). Cerebral organoids as tools to identify the developmental roots of autism. Molecular autism, 11(1), 58. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-020-00360-3
[3] Qian, X., Nguyen, H. N., Jacob, F., Song, H., & Ming, G. L. (2017). Using brain organoids to understand Zika virus-induced microcephaly. Development (Cambridge, England), 144(6), 952–957. https://doi.org/10.1242/dev.140707
[4] Lavazza A. (2020). Human cerebral organoids and consciousness: a double-edged sword. Monash bioethics review, 38(2), 105–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40592-020-00116-y
[5] Chan, W. K., Griffiths, R., Price, D. J., & Mason, J. O. (2020). Cerebral organoids as tools to identify the developmental roots of autism. Molecular autism, 11(1), 58. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-020-00360-3
[6] Chan, W. K., Griffiths, R., Price, D. J., & Mason, J. O. (2020). Cerebral organoids as tools to identify the developmental roots of autism. Molecular autism, 11(1), 58. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-020-00360-3
[7] Chan, W. K., Griffiths, R., Price, D. J., & Mason, J. O. (2020). Cerebral organoids as tools to identify the developmental roots of autism. Molecular autism, 11(1), 58. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-020-00360-3
[8] Chan, W. K., Griffiths, R., Price, D. J., & Mason, J. O. (2020). Cerebral organoids as tools to identify the developmental roots of autism. Molecular autism, 11(1), 58. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-020-00360-3
[9] Chan, W. K., Griffiths, R., Price, D. J., & Mason, J. O. (2020). Cerebral organoids as tools to identify the developmental roots of autism. Molecular autism, 11(1), 58. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-020-00360-3
[10] Hyun, I., Scharf-Deering, J. C., & Lunshof, J. E. (2020). Ethical issues related to brain organoid research. Brain research, 1732, 146653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2020.146653
[11] Chan, W. K., Griffiths, R., Price, D. J., & Mason, J. O. (2020). Cerebral organoids as tools to identify the developmental roots of autism. Molecular autism, 11(1), 58. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-020-00360-3
[12] Lavazza A. (2020). Human cerebral organoids and consciousness: a double-edged sword. Monash bioethics review, 38(2), 105–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40592-020-00116-y
[13] Gerakis, Y. (2019). Hetz, C. Brain organoids: a next step for humanized Alzheimer’s disease models?. Mol Psychiatry 24, 474–478. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-018-0343-7
[14] Qian, X., Nguyen, H. N., Jacob, F., Song, H., & Ming, G. L. (2017). Using brain organoids to understand Zika virus-induced microcephaly. Development (Cambridge, England), 144(6), 952–957. https://doi.org/10.1242/dev.140707
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Fragments of the Rural: Land dispossession and transformed livelihoods in India’s villages
Get PDFThis study investigates how the partial industrial transformation of the Indian village—the decoupling of the farmer from their farmland and their incomplete absorption into industrial labour—changes the rural dynamics of social relations. It further analyses if and how the partial-proletarianization of farmers has changed rural women’s interactions with their surrounding socioeconomic structures—both within the home and in the public space of the market. Literature on the subject shall be studied in conjunction with the case of Asawarpur, in Sonipat district of Haryana, and interviews from the field site shall be used to understand the nature of changes caused by land-acquisition-based private development. The nature of land dispossession shall be studied through Michael Levien’s problematic of accumulation by dispossession. The analysis of changes in social groups—households, castes, and classes—shall follow Henry Bernstein’s understanding of fragmented livelihoods in developing countries. This essay shall specifically focus on the impact of land dispossession and the arrival of new economic pursuits on traditional livelihoods and existing inequalities. Case studies by various scholars, read with evidence from Asawarpur, shall be used to show the fragmented nature of livelihoods and aggravated inequalities in the transformed economy of India’s countryside
Care to work? Policy Considerations for Engaging Jordanian Women in the Workforce
Get PDFThe purpose of this paper is to discuss the challenge of adapting care and family policies to the government of Jordan’s objectives, from economic development goals to maintaining social norms. Motives for interventions seem to signal an interest in gender equity and concerns around child development and family preservation. Indeed, for some, Jordan’s emerging caregiving market (and other liberal policies) might signal an easing in archetypal gendered norms around caregiving, domestic work, and women’s roles inside and outside of the public spheres. However, an analysis of the theory underlying care work and social reproduction along with a review of Jordanian social perceptions—among men and women alike—hints at a potential gap in policy. The paper challenges policymakers to consider the stubborn female labor force participation rate differently. The paper starts by untangling feminist theories around care and work. It then explores Jordan’s specific context regarding norms and perceptions around gender and work and gender and care. From there, it reviews and analyzes Jordan’s policies and presents opportunities for policymaking
Letter From The Editor-In-Chief
No full textKynnedy Simone Smith is the Editor-In-Chief for the 2022-2023 edition of the Columbia Undergraduate Science Journal