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Latvijos Žiemgala: ką liudija vietovardžiai
No full textThe article summarizes hypotheses of the origin of place names and the primary semantics of toponyms of the current Semigallia (Lat. Zemgale) – one of the historical ethnographic regions of Latvia. The short history of Semigallian cities and the possible etymology of names are introduced: city names such as Auce are discussed (mentioned in historical documents in 1426, place name of Baltic/Lithuanian origin), Bauska (mentioned in 1443, a city name possibly of Baltic/Latvian origin), Dobele (mentioned in 1254, toponym of Baltic/Latvian origin), Jelgava//Mītava (mentioned in 1265, place name of hypothetical – Livonian? Latvian? origin), Kalnciems (mentioned in 16th c., a place name of clear Latvian origin), Tukums (mentioned in 1253, a place name of very obscure – possibly Livonian, or Latvian – origin). Names of the largest rivers in Latvian Semigallia are also analyzed – Lielupe, Mūsa, Mēmele, as well as the names of some tributaries (Kaucīte, Īslīce, Svitene, Sesava, Platone, Svēte, etc.). Particularly distinctive is the derivative suffix -aine: Cērpaine, Svēpaine, Skujaine, Svētaine, Krievaine, Govaine, etc.The article also briefly discusses the oikonyms and microtoponyms of Semigallia, among which there are a number of borrowings. The main attention is paid to Lithuanianisms, which are most abundant on the Lithuanian-Latvian border: river names Ģirupe, Žare, Žurele, meadow name Ežerelis, home-stead names Karvišķe, Veršūns. Possible Lithuanianisms are evidenced by both the phonetics of names (homestead names Ķišķi, Žinduls) and morphology (Adžūni, Gaidžūni, Juknišķi).The phonetic feature of the Semigallian dialect – anaptyxis (insertion of a short vocal sound after tautosyllabic r/l) – is recorded in the Semigallian placenames: Zirega dzelme, Stirenu pļavele, Karepu dīķis. Semigallian toponyms (especially microtoponyms) stand out with a characteristic suffix -ene: oikonyms Blīdene, Spārnene, Zebrene, Dobele < * Dobelene, Tērvete < *Tērvetene, meadow names Cepurene, Griķene, Puķene, Talcene, Līdzumene, Mazā dakterene and many others.Straipsnyje apibendrinamos dabartinės Žiemgalos (latv. Zemgale) – vieno iš Latvijos istorinių etnografinių regionų – vietovardžių kilmės hipotezės, pirminė toponimų semantika. Supažindinama su Žiemgalos miestų trumpa istorija ir pavadinimų etimologija: aptariami tokie miestų vardai kaip Aucė (Auce, istoriniuose dokumentuose minėta 1426 m., baltiškos / lietuviškos kilmės vietovardis), Bauskė (Bauska, minėta 1443 m., galimai baltiškos / latviškos kilmės vardas), Duobelė (Dobele, minėta 1254 m., baltiškos / latviškos kilmės toponimas), Jelgava // Mintauja (Jelgava // Mītava, minėta 1265 m., hipotetiškos – lyviškos? latviškos? – kilmės miesto pavadinimas), Kalnciemas (Kalnciems, minėtas XVI a., aiškios latviškos kilmės toponimas), Tukumas (Tukums, minėtas 1253 m., labai neaiškios – galimai lyviškos, gal latviškos kilmės vardas). Analizuojami ir Latvijos Žiemgalos didžiausių upių pavadinimai – Lielupė (Lielupe), Mūša (Mūsa), Nemunėlis (Mēmele), kai kurių intakų vardai (Kaucīte, Īslīce, Svitene, Sesava, Platone, Svēte ir kt.). Ypač išskirtina potamonimų darybinė priesaga -aine: Cērpaine, Svēpaine, Skujaine, Svētaine, Krievaine, Govaine ir kt. Straipsnyje trumpai aptariami ir Žiemgalos oikonimai bei mikrotoponimai, tarp kurių yra nemažai skolinių. Didžiausias dėmesys skiriamas lituanizmams, kurių daugiausia Lietuvos ir Latvijos pasienyje: tai potamonimai Ģirupe, Žare, Žurele, pievos pavadinimas Ežerelis, oikonimai Karvišķe, Veršūns. Galimus lituanizmus liudija ne tik leksika, bet ir fonetika (sodybų pavadinimai Ķišķi, Žinduls), ir morfologija (Adžūni, Gaidžūni, Juknišķi). Žiemgalos vietovardžiuose užfiksuota žiemgalių tarmei būdinga fonetinė ypatybė – anaptiksė (trumpo vokalinio garso įterpimas po tautosilabinių r / l): Zirega dzelme, Stirenu pļavele, Karepu dīķis, kurios gyvojoje kalboje nebėra. Žiemgališki toponimai (ypač mikrotoponimai) išsiskiria charakteringa priesaga -ene: oikonimai Blīdene, Spārnene, Zebrene, Dobele < * Dobelene, Tērvete < *Tērvetene, pievų pavadinimai Cepurene, Griķene, Puķene, Talcene, Līdzumene, Mazā dakterene ir daug kitų
Kiaušinio simbolika Mažosios Lietuvos Velykų šventėje
No full textThe biggest Lietuvininkai holiday connected with the ceremonial act of egg painting was Easter. In general, rites of a communal nature dominated in the calendar holidays of Lithuania Minor: attending church in the morning of the holiday, whipping with juniper or birch branches on the first day of Easter (in some locations – on the second), giving of painted Easter eggs and so on. It should be noted that from the very first descriptions of the Easter celebration in Lithuania Minor and to the present day, the main holiday symbol has been an egg and ceremonial acts related to it. Thus, the Easter egg and its related ritual actions in the Easter traditions and rites in Lithuania Minor constitute the object of the article.The archaic model of the Easter celebration in Lithuania Minor is characterized by the elements related to the symbolism of the egg, which include the ritual function and archaic semantics of egg painting, the custom of Easter egg gifting and well-wishing, and various games with eggs (breaking, rolling). Rituals with this main holiday attribute – the egg – played an exceptional role, so custom and tradition in Lithuania Minor changed very slowly.In the late 19th – early 20th centuries, in Lithuania Minor, the ritual tradition noticeably loses its existential significance; rituals become customs, and ritual functions are replaced by traditions that form regional ethnic identity. The magical meaning of egg gifting is gone, the tradition of Easter greetings is gaining popularity, and a new element is emerging – hiding eggs in the nests made in the garden and telling children that they are brought by the Easter bunny.The modern model of Lithuania Minor holidays tries to combine ethnic traditions with the needs of the consumer-oriented modern society. Easter in Lithuania is unimaginable without Easter eggs. Of course, the techniques of egg decoration have slightly changed, but the activities remain identical – Easter eggs are given as presents and various games are played with them – rolling and trying to crush the opponent’s eggs.Thus, based on the written sources recorded in the territory of Lithuania Minor and on modern ethnographic narratives, it becomes obvious that the interpretations of Easter celebration provided by the informants are related to the social and cultural environment in which they live. Therefore, the data about Easter in Lithuania Minor obtained from surviving descriptions and living witnesses are interesting and studied as a monument of history and ethnography, a testimony to the evolution of spiritual values of the area’s population.Straipsnyje, pasitelkiant autentišką lietuvininkų medžiagą, chronologiniu aspektu analizuojami Velykų papročiai ir tradicijos Mažojoje Lietuvoje, susijusios su vienu iš pagrindinių šventės elementų – kiaušiniu ir su juo atliekamais apeiginiais veiksmais: dovanojimu, dažymu, daužymu, ridenimu, velykavimu.Lietuvininkų Velykų šventės archajiškajam modeliui būdingi su kiaušinio simbolika susiję elementai, kuriems priskiriama apeiginė funkcija – tai archajišką semantiką turintis kiaušinių dažymas ir velykaičių dovanojimo paprotys bei įvairūs žaidimai su juo (daužymas, ridenimas). Ritualai su šiuo pagrindiniu šventės atributu – kiaušiniu – atliko išskirtinį vaidmenį, todėl lietuvininkų paprotinės tradicijos kaita buvo lėta. XIX a. pab.–XX a. pr. Mažojoje Lietuvoje galima pastebėti, jog lietuvininkų ritualinė tradicija praranda turėtą egzistencinę svarbą, ritualai virsta papročiais, o apeiginių funkcijų vietą užima tradicijos, formuojančios regioninę etninę tapatybę. Nebelieka kiaušinio dovanojimo maginės reikšmės, išpopuliarėja velykavimo tradicija bei atsiranda naujas elementas – kiaušinių slėpimas sode padarytuose lizduose vaikams pasakojant, kad juos padėjęs Velykų zuikis.Sugretinus Mažosios Lietuvos ir Didžiosios Lietuvos XX a. pab.–XXI a. pr. etnografinius duomenis matyti, kad Velykų papročių, susijusių su kiaušiniais, bendrybių yra daug: marginimo specifika, įvairūs veiksmai su margučiais (dovanojimas, žaidimai). Informantų pateikiamos tam tikrų tradicijų interpretacijos visuomet susijusios su socialine ir kultūrine aplinka, kurioje jie gyvena. Taigi sulyginus Didžiosios Lietuvos ir Mažosios Lietuvos Velykų šventės struktūrą ir apeiginius veiksmus su pagrindiniu šventės atributu – kiaušiniu, galima teigti, jog šie papročiai iš esmės yra tapatūs, pasitaikantys pakitimai yra gana smulkūs, daugiau susiję su socialine šeimų aplinka ir religiniu aspektu.XX–XXI a. šimtmečių sankirtoje kultūros ir švietimo institucijos tapo bene svarbiausiu veiksniu, palaikančiu simbolinių etninės kultūros formų gyvybingumą. Nors instituciškai organizuojama Velykų šventė vyksta pagal daugiau ar mažiau visai Lietuvai būdingą scenarijų, tačiau išskiriant tipiškus lietuvininkų regionui būdingus šventės elementus, centralizuotas kultūros institucijų veiklos organizavimas gali būti palankus puoselėjant vietines lietuvininkų tradicijos formas
Neuropsychiatric Manifestations of Lyme Disease: A Literature Review of Psychiatric and Cognitive Impacts
No full textBackground: Lyme disease can lead to neuropsychiatric symptoms like depression, anxiety, and cognitive issues, often mimicking primary psychiatric disorders. This paper examines the connection between Lyme disease and neuropsychiatric outcomes to improve diagnosis and treatment.Materials and Methods: The PubMed database was searched for scientific literature sources. Publications published in English in 2019–2024 were selected. All psychiatric symptoms and disorders found to be associated with Lyme disease were included. For neurological symptoms, the analysis focused on studies addressing cognitive dysfunction.Results: Acute neuroborreliosis may have minimal effects on the cognitive function and typically resolves well with treatment. However, some studies suggest that Lyme disease can affect the patients’ cognitive abilities, leading to impairments in verbal fluency, attention, and memory, with a few isolated dementia-like cases highlighting the need for careful diagnosis. Nevertheless, recent large-scale studies show no increased risk of dementia. Regarding psychiatric symptoms, findings are also inconsistent, with some studies suggesting an increased risk of depression, anxiety, sleep disturbances, and other mental health conditions, while others find no such association.Conclusions: There is no strong evidence supporting Lyme disease’s role in long-term cognitive or psychiatric disorders. However, an early diagnosis and timely antibiotic treatment remain crucial in minimizing long-term consequences and improving patient outcomes
Mortality Rates of Minor vs Major Lower Extremity Amputations in Diabetic Patients
No full textBackground: Mortality rates between minor (e.g., removal of toes or part of the foot) and major (e.g., below- or above-the-knee) lower extremity amputations (LEA) vary significantly in diabetic patients. Other factors, including survival rates, rehabilitation outcomes, and healthcare burden, are also notably impacted by the type of amputation performed.Objective: This narrative review aims to analyze and compare mortality rates following minor and major LEA in diabetic patients, by highlighting key risk factors and their impact on patient outcomes.Methods: A narrative review of existing literature was conducted by using searches of PubMed and Google Scholar. Studies reporting mortality rates, risk factors, comorbidities, functional outcomes, and management strategies among diabetic patients undergoing minor and major LEA were included.Results: Major LEA is associated with significantly higher short- and long-term mortality rates, with five-year survival ranging from 10% to 48%, compared to 29% to 69% for minor LEA. The key risk factors for mortality include chronic renal disease, peripheral arterial disease, sepsis, and poor glycemic control. While minor LEA offers better survival rates, it carries a higher risk of progression to major amputation if diabetes-related complications persist.Conclusion: The findings highlight the critical importance of early intervention, strict glycemic control, and multidisciplinary care to improve the survival and quality of life in diabetic patients undergoing LEA. Limb preservation strategies should be prioritised whenever possible, as minor amputations lead to better long-term outcomes. Future research should focus on refining risk stratification and optimizing rehabilitation programs to enhance patient prognosis post-amputation
Techniques for Handling Challenging Student Behaviour in Language Learning Classrooms
No full textDespite the numerous studies conducted on the positive discipline techniques in addressing misbehaviour in the classroom, a significant gap remains in our understanding of how these challenges and their associated techniques differ based on the specific classroom environment and the subject. This article aims to identify the common causes of misbehaviours in the foreign language classrooms and teachers’ response and techniques to deal with these challenges by maintaining positive discipline. The present study was conducted in the context of a workshop that involved eight foreign language teachers at a private school. The workshop was discussion based, and participants shared their challenges and techniques to deal with them accordingly. The research methodology applied was qualitative, with content analysis and the usage of inductive coding to analyse the data gathered from the workshop. The findings of the study indicate that the most prevalent causes of problematic behaviour in foreign language classrooms are academic challenges, attention seeking, and individual needs. The strategies employed to address these challenges include active engagement, personal talks, positive reinforcement, and classroom rules reminders
Stiprybėmis grįsta socialinių įgūdžių ugdymo strategija: mokinio, turinčio autizmo spektro sutrikimą, atvejo tyrimas
No full textThis case study explored the possibilities of applying strengths-based strategies to develop the social skills ofa student with autism spectrum disorder.Problem questions: What peculiarities (strengths, deficiencies) of social skills in the student with autismspectrum disorder do the student’s educators envisage? What are the opportunities for developing this student’ssocial skills, based on the perspective of strengths?The aim of the research - using a case analysis to determine the possibilities of applying a strengths-basedsocial skills development strategy to a student with autism spectrum disorder.Research methodology and methods: theoretical analysis; case studies (semi-structured interviews; modelingof an individualized social skills development plan; focus group survey and content analysis).Study sample. An 8-year-old special school student with autism spectrum disorder was selected for thecase study.Other participants of the study were the student’s educators (teachers, speech therapist, the child’s parents,etc.).After qualitative content analysis of semi-structured interview data, the strengths (functionality) of socialskills of a student with autism spectrum disorder were determined. An individual social skills developmentplan based on the student’s strengths was modeled through group discussions with teachers and the student’sparents. The study participants developed the student’s social skills for 3 months according to this plan. Basedon the prepared plan, the student’s social skills were developed at school and in the family, applying the socialskills group training model, when, under the guidance of adults (teachers, parents), the child, together withpeers, engages in joint activities.The results of the strengths-based social skills development were analyzed using the focus group method.A slight increase in the functionality of some social skills was determined (the child’s greater interest in peersand participation in joint activities with peers, better concentration of attention, etc.). In addition, accordingto the study participants, positive changes occurred in the areas of teacher-parent cooperation and understandingof the student’s individual needs.Straipsnyje pristatomi mokinio, turinčio autizmo spektro sutrikimą, stiprybėmis grįsto socialiniųįgūdžių ugdymo tyrimo rezultatai. Tyrimui atlikti pasirinkta kokybinio tyrimo metodologija, atvejo tyrimas,taikant pusiau struktūruoto interviu, individualaus socialinių ir emocinių įgūdžių ugdymo plano modeliavimo,grupinės diskusijos, turinio analizės metodus. Tyrime dalyvavo 8 metų specialiosios mokyklos mokinys,turintis autizmo spektro sutrikimą; mokinio ugdytojai (mokytojai, logopedė, vaiko tėvai ir kt.). Interviu metodunustatytos esminės mokinio, turinčio autizmo spektro sutrikimą, socialinių įgūdžių stiprybės (funkcionalumas).Dalyvaujant mokytojams ir mokinio tėvams, sumodeliuotas mokinio stiprybėmis grįstas individualussocialinių įgūdžių ugdymo planas. Remiantis parengtu planu, mokykloje ir šeimoje buvo ugdomi mokiniosocialiniai įgūdžiai, taikant socialinių įgūdžių grupinio mokymo modelį, kai, suaugusiesiems (pedagogams,tėvams) vadovaujant, vaikas kartu su bendraamžiais įsitraukia į bendrą veiklą. Grupinės diskusijos metoduatskleisti stiprybių perspektyva grįsto socialinių įgūdžių ugdymo rezultatai. Nustatytas nedidelis kai kuriųsocialinių įgūdžių funkcionalumo padidėjimas (didesnis vaiko domėjimasis bendraamžiais ir dalyvavimas subendraamžiais bendrose veiklose, geresnė dėmesio koncentracija ir kt.). Be to, teigiamai pakito mokytojų irtėvų bendradarbiavimas ir gebėjimas suprasti mokinio poreikius
Fatal Outcome of Suicidal Multi-Substance Ingestion Involving Sodium Nitrate and Nitrite Toxicity: A Case Report and Literature Review
No full textBackground: Nitrate and nitrite toxicity, particularly from sodium nitrite and sodium nitrate ingestion, has become a critical public health issue due to its role in accidental poisoning, foodborne exposure, and intentional self-harm. Sodium nitrite, commonly used in food preservation, is increasingly linked to suicide, with online resources providing accessible information on lethal dosages. This trend underscores an urgent need for regulatory action and preventive strategies. This report details a fatal case of nitrate and nitrite toxicity in a 19-year-old female, presenting a complex toxicological profile involving ethyl alcohol, amphetamines, and additional pharmaceuticals.Materials and methods: A systematic literature search was conducted across PubMed and Google Scholar databases, spanning articles published over a period of the last 10 years, utilizing keywords relevant to the topic under consideration and their combinations. 58 pertinent articles were selected, supplemented by data from the Lithuanian State Forensic Medicine Service, involving a clinical case. Autopsy findings, toxicological analyses, and contextual details were meticulously examined to elucidate the mechanism and circumstances of death.Case presentation: A 19-year-old female was found deceased in her home, alongside a suicide note indicating intent to self-harm through ingestion of sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, and multiple medications. The autopsy findings included cherry-brown lividity, dark, non-coagulated blood within the heart chambers, and significant multi-organ congestion, consistent with methemoglobinemia and systemic hypoxia. Toxicology results confirmed a blood alcohol concentration of 1.22‰, with trace levels of amphetamine, atropine, and quetiapine, while nitrites detected in the gastric contents confirmed sodium nitrite as a primary toxic agent. The toxic synergy of these substances ultimately led to fatal multi-organ compromise.Conclusions: This case emphasizes the serious risks associated with nitrate and nitrite ingestion, particularly in instances of intentional overdose facilitated by readily accessible online information on lethal dosages. The autopsy findings reveal characteristic signs of methemoglobinemia and systemic hypoxia; however, a thorough forensic assessment must also consider additional factors, including the presence of a suicide note, the scene context, and any substances collected at the location.Lessons: Due to the inherent instability of nitrite in blood, its post-mortem detection is often challenging, thereby complicating toxicological confirmation. The increasing accessibility and misuse of sodium nitrite underscore an urgent need for regulatory oversight, public awareness, and enhanced preventive measures to address the rising incidence of intentional sodium nitrite toxicity, particularly within at-risk populations
Liuteronų Bažnyčios narių įtraukimas į tremtinių sąrašus vykdant 1944 m. Lietuvos vokiečių tremties direktyvas
No full textAt the beginning of the new Soviet occupation, the repressive apparatus of the Lithuanian NKVD–NKGB, in coordination with their leadership in Moscow, decided at the end of 1944 to deport the remaining German nationals and their families to remote regions of the USSR. Subsequently, directives issued on 29 November and 16 December 1944, mandated the systematic collection of information regarding the Germans who continued to reside in Lithuania.
Although these directives required NKVD–NKGB departments to objectively determine the nationality of such individuals, officials of the Jurbarkas and Šimkaičiai executive committees compiled lists of persons of German nationality by enumerating Lutheran families in villages within their administrative boundaries. Thirty-one families – that is, 130 people, or 16 percent of those deported – were exiled to Tajikistan in 1945 solely because they were Lutherans. Even members of the Lithuanian Lutheran patriotic organisation Pagalba, who had opposed German influence in the Lutheran Church during the interwar period, were condemned to exile. Reports submitted by the executive committees and approved by local and regional NKVD–NKGB officers were unconditionally accepted by the NKVD–NKGB Operational Sector in Vilnius.
Despite the Lutheran Church’s efforts to demonstrate to the Soviet Lithuanian authorities that membersof Lithuanian nationality had been unjustly included in the lists of those to be “evacuated,” their attempts to return the deportees to their homeland went unanswered.Straipsnyje aptariama pirmoji pokario metų tremtis, kurios aukomis tapo Lietuvos vokiečiai ir dalis lietuvių tautybės evangelikų liuteronų tikybos žmonių. 1944 m. NKVD-NKGB direktyvos skelbė, kad iš sovietų Lietuvos turi būti ištremti visi krašte likę vokiečiai, ir nurodė, kaip reikia juos identifikuoti. Kai kurių valsčių vykdomųjų komitetų pareigūnai nesivargino kruopščia šios tautybės asmenų paieška. Vokiečiais jie įvardijo sporadiškai surašinėdami jų administracinėse vietovėse gyvenusias lietuvių liuteronų šeimas. Tokias vykdomųjų komitetų pažymas nekvestionuodami patvirtino vietos ir apskričių NKVDNKGB organai. Šie žmonės buvo represuoti tik todėl, kad išpažino liuteronų tikėjimą
Postrzeganie przestrzeni w opowiadaniach beskidzkich Andrzeja Stasiuka
No full textPolish writer Andrzej Stasiuk is a representative of the generation born around 1960. The Low Beskids region serves as the backdrop for several collections of his stories, including Opowieści galicyjskie, Dukla and Zima. In this context, the role of the narrator, as conceived by Stasiuk, is of particular significance. This article explores how the narrator perceives the terrain. Philological analysis has shown that the author focuses on describing transformations that occurred in the area in the 1990s in ordinary people’s lives, but also on the regional nature. The presented backwoods are viewed in opposition to industrial centres, and the standstill in this area is in opposition to an active lifestyle in the external world, majestic mountains to human valleys, severe nature to civilisation, and the present time to the past. The narrator’s role is twofold: he reports on the protagonists’ actions while concurrently offering personal reflections. The author’s primary focus is on the concept of place and, more specifically, on the perception of place. The physical space is integral to the formation of nature and characters; however, the mental space is particularly salient insofar as it refers to the narrator’s mode of perceiving reality.Polski pisarz Andrzej Stasiuk należy do pokolenia urodzonego około 1960 roku. Obszar Beskidu Niskiego stanowi scenerię kilku jego tomów opowiadań: Opowieści galicyjskich, Dukli, Zimy. Niniejszy artykuł dokonuje analizy sposobu przedstawiania w nich przyrody i otoczenia bohaterów. W tym kontekście istotną rolę odgrywa wykreowany przez Stasiuka narrator, który opisuje okolicę. Przeprowadzona analiza filologiczna wykazuje, że w opowiadaniach pisarz skupia się na przedstawieniu przemian, jakie zaszły na tym terenie w latach 90. XX wieku w życiu jego mieszkańców, ale również interesuje się regionalną przyrodą. Przedstawiana prowincja jest postrzegana w opozycji do centrum, z kolei charakteryzująca ją stagnacja – do ruchliwości trybu życia świata zewnętrznego, majestatyczne wzniesienia górskie – do dolin zamieszkiwanych przez ludzi, surowa natura – do cywilizacji, chwila obecna – do czasów minionych. Narrator przedstawia losy postaci, lecz uzupełnia fabułę skojarzeniami rodzącymi się w trakcie jego wędrówki po okolicy, gdyż zastanawia się nad sposobami postrzegania przestrzeni. W jego rozważaniach istotna jest zarówno przestrzeń fizyczna, jak i przestrzeń mentalna
Language and Structure of a Business Email in the Conditions of Russian, Polish and English-language Communication
No full textThis article offers a comparative analysis of Polish, Russian and English-language business emails. The results of the research displayed both similarities and differences in linguistic realisation of this genre of business communication. The greatest similarities were observed in those elements of an electronic letter, which are typical only for this particular form of correspondence. The differences are mainly in using para-linguistic devices, such as punctuation, discoursive-stylistic devices in writing upper- and lower-case letters, and in the linguo-cultural dependence in the implementation of such elements as the greeting and the closing formula. Polish and Russian emails are distinguished by a high degree of formality and a tendency to maintain an official tone compared to English-language texts of this genre, in which one can notice a greater directness and avoidance of literature, which is particularly characteristic of Polish courtesy formulas.
Similarities detected in the comparative study may be due to adherence to netiquette, while differences are triggered by different norms in the etiquette of each language. This means that despite the universality of netiquette norms and the dominance of English in international correspondence, email still retains linguo-cultural specificity due to differences in ethnic worldviews and the officialdom of Slavic culture in relation to the openness of Euro-American civilisation