OSU Journals (Oklahoma State University)

Strawn, Sheila

 
 
Five Year Index to Oklahoma Native Plant Record 
Volume 10 
 4 The Identification of Some of the More Common Native Oklahoma Grasses by Vegetative 
Characters, 1950 M. S. thesis, William Franklin Harris 
 34 The Vascular Flora of Hale Scout Reservation, LeFlore County, Oklahoma 
Bruce W. Hoagland and Amy K. Buthod 
 54 The Toxicity of Extracts of Tephrosia virginiana (Fabaceae) in Oklahoma, Mary Gard 
 65 Four Western Cheilanthoid Ferns in Oklahoma, Bruce A. Smith 
 77 Critic’s Choice Essay: Being a Method Proposed for the Ready Finding ... To What Sort Any Plant 
Belongeth, Ronald J. Tyrl 
Volume 11 
 4 Survey of the Vascular Flora of the Boehler Seeps and Sandhills Preserve, Ph. D. dissertation 
Linda Gatti Clark 
 22 Schoenoplectus hallii, S. saximontanus, and the Putative S. hallii x S. saximontanus Hybrid: Observations 
from the Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge and the Fort Sill Military Reservation from 2002-
2010, Marian Smith and Paul M. McKenzie 
 33 Spatial Genetic Structure of the Tallgrass Prairie Grass Dichanthelium oligosanthes (Scribner’s panicum), 
Molly J. Parkhurst, Andrew Doust, Margarita Mauro-Herrera, Janette A. Steets, and Jeffrey M. Byrnes 
 43 The Effects of Removal of Juniperus virginiana L. Trees and Litter from a Central Oklahoma 
Grassland, Jerad S. Linneman, Matthew S. Allen, and Michael W. Palmer 
 61 The Changing Forests of Central Oklahoma: A Look at the Composition of the Cross Timbers Prior 
to Euro-American Settlement, in the 1950s and Today, Richard E. Thomas and Bruce W. Hoagland 
 75 Critic’s Choice Essay: Some Thoughts on Oklahoma Plants and Summer 2011’s Exceptional 
Drought, Leslie E. Cole 
Volume 12 
 4 Possible Mechanisms of the Exclusion of Johnson Grass by Tall Grass Prairies, M. S. thesis 
Marilyn A. Semtner 
 33 A Preliminary Pawnee Ethnobotany Checklist, C. Randy Ledford 
 43 Vascular Flora of Alabaster Caverns State Park, Cimarron Gypsum Hills, Woodward County, 
Oklahoma, Gloria M. Caddell and Kristi D. Rice 
 63 A Comparison of the Composition and Structure of Two Oak Forests in Marshall and 
Pottawatomie Counties, Bruce Smith 
 69 Critic’s Choice Essay: Virtual Herbaria Come of Age, Wayne Elisens 
Volume 13 
 4 Ecology and Taxonomy of Water Canyon, Canadian County, Oklahoma, M. S. thesis, 
Constance A. Taylor 
 29 A Checklist of the Vascular Flora of the Mary K. Oxley Nature Center, Tulsa County, Oklahoma 
Amy K. Buthod 
 48 Smoke-Induced Germination in Phacelia strictaflora, Stanley A. Rice and Sonya L. Ross 
 55 Critic’s Choice Essay: A Calvacade of Oklahoma Botanists in Oklahoma – Contributors to our 
Knowledge of the Flora of Oklahoma, Ronald J. Tyrl and Paula A. Shryock 
Volume 14 
 4 Flora of Kiowa County, Oklahoma, M. S. thesis, Lottie Opal Baldock 
 38 Gardens of Yesteryear, Sadie Cole Gordon 
 43 Oklahoma Deciduous Trees Differ in Chilling Enhancement of Budburst 
Stanley A. Rice and Sonya L. Ross 
 50 Mapping Distribution in Oklahoma and Raising Awareness: Purple Loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria), 
Multiflora Rose (Rosa multiflora), and Japanese Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) 
Katherine E. Keil and Karen R. Hickman 
 67 Non-Twining Milkweed Vines of Oklahoma: An Overview of Matelea biflora and Matelea cynanchoides 
(Apocynaceae), Angela McDonnell 
 80 Critic’s Choice Essay: Pollination Ecology of Our Native Prairie Plants, Gloria M. Caddell 
 
 
 
Oklahoma Native Plant Society 
P.O. Box 14274 
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74159-1274 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
_________________________________________________________________________ 
In this issue of Oklahoma Native Plant Record Volume 15, December 2015: 
_________________________________________________________________________ 
 
4 Preface to First Flowering Dates for Central Oklahoma, Wayne Elisens 
6 First Flowering Dates for Central Oklahoma, Ben Osborn 
19 Forest Structure and Fire History at Lake Arcadia, Oklahoma County,  
Oklahoma (1820–2014), Chad King 
31 Interplanting Floral Resource Plants with Vegetable Plants Enhances  
Beneficial Arthropod Abundance in a Home Garden.  
Chrisdon B. Bonner, Eric J. Rebek, Janet C. Cole, Brian A. Kahn, and Janette A. Steets 
49 Contributions to the Flora of Cimarron County and the Black Mesa Area  
Amy K. Buthod and Bruce W. Hoagland 
78 Antifungal Activity in Extracts of Plants from Southwestern Oklahoma 
against Aspergillus flavus, Tahzeeba Frisby and Cameron University students 
96 Kudzu, Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr. Abundance and Distribution in Oklahoma 
Marli Claytor and Karen R. Hickman 
105 Critic’s Choice Essay: Mistletoe, Phoradendron serotinum (Raf.) Johnston, Paul Buck 
 
Five Year Index to Oklahoma Native Plant Record – inside back cover 


English

Five Year Index to Oklahoma Native Plant Record

Reprinted from the ONPS Gaillardia newsletter, Spring 199

Buck, Paul

Oklahoma Native Plant Record 105 
Volume 15, December 2015 
Paul Buck
https://doi.org/10.22488/okstate.17.100117
Critic’s Choice Essay 
MISTLETOE, PHORADENDRON SEROTINUM 
(RAF.) JOHNSTON 
Reprinted from Gaillardia, Spring 1993 
Paul Buck, deceased 
Professor Emeritus 
Department of Biological Science  
University of Tulsa 
Every Oklahoma child quickly becomes 
familiar with the common mistletoe, the 
green leaved growth on naked branches of 
large trees in mid-winter. This native plant 
occurs over most of the state and is 
particularly popular as one of the year-end 
holiday decorations. We all know it is 
permissible to steal a kiss from someone 
standing “under the mistletoe.” 
Although considered by many to be a 
parasite, in reality the plant is only semi-
parasitic. It does obtain water, minerals, and 
perhaps some proteins from the host, but it 
is able to carry out photosynthesis and 
therefore produce most of its own food. In 
spite of the plant invading its tissue, the 
host is seldom harmed, unless of course 
there is a very heavy infestation. 
Just 100 years ago in February 1893, 
mistletoe became the floral emblem of the 
Territory of Oklahoma. In 1909, the Second 
State Legislature conferred the same 
designation for the State of Oklahoma. The 
following explanation for its selection 
appeared in the Chronicles of Oklahoma, the 
publication of the Oklahoma Historical 
Society. 
Tradition has it that the first grave made 
in Oklahoma country in the winter after the 
Opening of 1889 was covered with 
mistletoe since there were no other floral 
offerings in the new country except the 
green of the mistletoe with its white berries 
growing in great clusters on the elms along 
the dry creek beds and branches. All 
through the winter, the green bank of the 
lonely grave could be seen far across the 
prairie against the sere brown grass or the 
melting snow of early spring. Thus, the 
mistletoe became associated with sacred 
thoughts among the pioneer settlers. 
In Oklahoma, mistletoe is most 
commonly associated with Ulmus americana 
(American elm), a species which has been 
badly ravaged by Dutch elm disease, a 
fungus with tissue choking the water 
translocating tissues. Mistletoe may also be 
found on hackberries, oaks, maples, ash, 
sycamore, and other native deciduous trees. 
This is fortunate; otherwise, the species 
might well become a candidate for rare or 
endangered status. 
The plants are dioecious (unisexual: 
staminate and pistillate flowers on different 
individuals). Flowers are about 2 mm across, 
without petals, and borne on spike-like 
stalks from the bases of the leaves. The 
fruit, which are readily consumed by birds, 
are whitish, mucilaginous, one-seeded 
drupes, appearing during the winter. It has 
been suggested that dispersal takes place 
when the sticky seeds are “glued” to a twig 
as a bird wipes its bill, or the ingested, but 
unharmed, seeds are deposited on a limb 
with fecal material. 
106 Oklahoma Native Plant Record 
Volume 15, December 2015 
Paul Buck
Used as a medicinal plant by Indians 
and pioneers, a tea was prepared to relax 
nervous tension and muscle irritability and 
to increase blood pressure. Other uses were 
to lessen bleeding, promote clotting, 
stimulate uterine contraction, and arrest 
postpartum hemorrhage. However, caution 
is advisable. Like virtually all medications, 
mistletoe can be poisonous under certain 
conditions such as improper dosage levels, 
sensitive individuals, or with the very young, 
elderly, or feeble. There is no reliable 
information on safe dosages. Although 
consumption of the fruit is harmless to pigs, 
13 Hereford cattle, forced to consume the 
plant when their pasture was reduced, died 
within 10 hours after the onset of 
symptoms. Death was due to collapse of the 
cardiovascular system. Several deaths among 
children, having consumed the fruit, have 
been documented.  
Such is the state’s floral emblem, the 
Oklahoma mistletoe, Phoraendron serotinum — 
an interesting, beneficial, and potentially 
dangerous member of our native flora. 
bacf


Critic's Choice Essay: Mistletoe, Phoradendron Serotinum (Raf.) Johnston

Lunberg, Isabel

Social implications of split brain research

Bardo, John W.

Bardo, Deborah J

Steiber, Steven R

Empirical assessment of attitudes

Shupe Jr, Anson D

Reverse missionizing: Sun Myung Moon's Unificationist Movement in the United States

Gross, Jr, Francis L

Moral development theory: Kohlberg vs Perry

Brocato, B R

Lundgren, Terry D

FREE INQUIRY in Creative Sociology Vo I ume 8 No 2 November 1980 209
WAR FOREVER?
B R Brocato & Terry D Lundgren, Eastern New Mexico University
I NTRODUCT ION We suggest tha t
all industrial nations have devel-
oped a command economy whose
structural--requisites depend on
the likelihood of war. Such a sys-
tem enmeshes the entire world
through its requirements for defen-
s i ve and offens i ve weapon ry. Each
nation believes it must always be
ready to contain the enemy, and
each has deve loped a support i ve
ideology for a "defensive" state.
As the technology and defensive
capacity of a nation increase,
along with the cultural impera-
tives of defense, the probability
of war increases. Indeed, war be-
comes extremely functional for the
state. We see two possibi I ities: a
continuing series of small wars in
the world, or a super power war
followed by the ascendance of new
super powers and conti nuation of
the cycle: war forever!
Present i nterna tiona I rei a ti ons
suggest the increased probab iii ty
of nuclear war or conventional re-
gional wars. It is not that indivi-
duals are more aggressive. But
present i nsti tutiona I structures de-
termine policies that increase the
likelihood of war. The primary
factor is avai lable weaponry, ex-
plained as necessary for national
defense, fosteri ng a permanent
war economy (Mi lis 1958~ This
permanent war economy has pro-
duced a symbol ic state by which
the major institutions of world
capitalism have a dialogue that
is indicated by the world view of
military alertness.
WAR ECONOMY Mi lis has shown
that an interlock of social, econo-
mic and political ideologies in the
dominant institutional elites foster-
ed a rea I i ty tha t presupposes the
need for military superiority.
These shared realities become the
dominant perspectives by which
policy becomes active (Horowitz
1963 417; Cooper 1978 128).
At the close of World War I I,
the United States Government
found itself shamed by Stalinist
proclamations, as a diplomatic
entity and as a protector of free
enterprise. The realization that
the Soviet Union would soon ac-
quire the atomic bomb enhanced
the anx iety of the fi rst super pow-
er. As national pol icies were form-
ed, economic resources were chan-
neled into defense industries re-
fl ecti ng the need for mil i tary op-
tions on international issues.
• This definition of political real-
ity is demonstrated in the con-
stant involvement of the United
States in regions declared un-
stable. Corporate and government
investments flow into regions to
guarantee expanded markets for
business and for diplomatic power
blocks against Communist aggres-
sion (Landis 1979; Stockwell 1978;
Klare 1977). These initiatives
have developed a domestic econ-
omy thatis now ever more depen-
dent on manufacturi ng and export-
ing arms and other repressive
technologies (Heilbronner 1980 184;
Galbraith 1977 221; Wright 1979).
The present pol icies deriving
from corporate capital ism are vir-
tually dependent on a war mar-
ket, and wars are useful to re-
duce the growing inventories of
war materials outdated by techno-
logical advances (Reynolds & Lun-
dgren 1976). This leads to allocat-
ing more resources to build new
armaments. Thus the technology
and ideology of the war economy
are self-sustaining.
ARMS SALES & ASSISTANCE
Although the United States has
been at peace, military spending
has continually increased •. Such
expenditures impose a continuous
drain on economic resources. The
governments of the North Atlantic
Treaty Organizaton have approved
long-term defense plans tha tare
to aid the Western European secur-
ity (Brown 1978).
The Military Assistance Prog-
rams (MAPs) have given over 86
bi II ion dollars to East Asia, Af-
rica, Latin America, the Near
East and Europe (Klare 1977).
This program is broken down into
FREE INQUIRY in Creative Sociology
other organizational programs by
which the United States Govern-
ment and military agencies are
able to provide industry with a
market and further American hege-
mony abroad. The MAP agency
grants arms, equipment, and ser-
vices to foreign powers. The For-
eign Military Sales Program (FMS)
awards credits to stimulate arms
purchases by foreign governments.
The International Mi I i tary Educa-
tion and Training Program (IMEP)
reinforces acknowledgment of that
country's strategic importance to
United States defense interests.
The Un i ted Sta tes Departmen t of
Defense has justified expenditures
1) to strengthen the mil i tary tech-
nology base; 2) for a vigorous
modern i za t i on of s tra teg i c forces;
and 3) for conti nued development
of of tactical programs assumed
to be imperative for national se-
curity (Air Force Secretary 1979;
Dept of Defense Annual Rpt, FY
1978-1979). Such terms refl ect the
s y mbo lie i n terac t ion i nthe ins tit u-
tional realm of the elites. Policy
formulation and action become in-
terlocked among the military, in-
dus try, and governmen t.
Expenditures, under the guise
of securi ty assi stance programs i n-
elude government, commercial, and
fin a n cia I t ran sac t ion s • From 1950
to 1977, the United States Military
Assistance Programs transferred
about 126 billion dollars worth of
defense items. Security assistance
programs are the major i nstru-
ments of foreign policy for govern-
ment, of market expansion for in-
dustry, and the major instrument
by which the military maintains
its credibility (DOD Annual Rprt
FY 1979,1978157; Revanal 1978;
Lowenthal 1978). Such processes
in a complex world depend on
other organ i za t ions for support
services. Thus, resource drain
becomes accomplished throughout
the social structure, whi Ie funds
become avai lable to other quasi-
mil i tary appara tuses to support
existing programs.
RHETORIC OF DISARMAMENT
The execut i ve branch
Government is a powerful
of the
political
Volume 8 No 2 November 1980 210
tool by which economic policies
are legitimized and institutionaliz-
ed. A survey of the President's
budgetary proposals for 1979 re-
vealed little change from past ad-
ministrations in national defense,
foreign aid, and other strategic
resource alloca ti on en ti ties (Con-
gressional Budget Office 1978).
The Un i ted Sta tes Arms Con tro I
and Disarmament Agency (ACDA)
guides pol icy towards reduction of
arms. A particular mission of the
Agency is to negotiate a Mutual
and Balanced Force Reduction
Treaty. These negotiations have
continued since 1973, and to 1978,
concrete agreemen ts have not been
reached (US ACDA 1978 2).
Inspection of the agency's
board of directors reveals that
policies are coordinated with the
Na tiona I Securi ty Counci I, the De-
fense Department, the Joint Chiefs
of Staff, and the Central Intelli-
gence Agency. While the policy ob-
jectives are coordinated, one must
question the relative power of the
ACDA in the face of the mil i tary-
i ndustri a I-pol it i ca I forces. .' The
Arms Control and Disarmament Act
directs the Agency to study the
economic and political consequen-
ces of arms control and disarma-
ment, to include the problem of
readjustment in the industry and
the reallocation of national resour-
ces. Bu t the ACDA has not yet
formulated a tenable option to the
present structural relationships
(ACDA 1978 36). Enorm9us structur-
al changes would be required to
change the present institutional
system and its accompanying legi-
ti mation. Such changes are ex-
tremely unlikely.
SUPER POWER SUCCESSION
Given the war economies of in-
d us t ria I nat ionsand the fa i lure
to reduce armaments, the chances
for war are enhanced. A world
war, while likely to result in
ca tastrophe for the super power
industrial complexes, could have
even more devastating results.
The elimination of the super pow-
ers wou Id elevate other nations to
superpower status, giving old
rule by new rulers. Economic ana
FREE INQUIRY in Creative Sociology
political hegemony and leadership
will be available to those nations
Ie a s t a f f ec ted by the des t r u c t ion
of the super powers. Historical
patterns suggest that as one
nation falters, another ascends,
with a global perspective which
equates power with war capability.
Given the proliferation of arma-
ments throughout the i ndustri a I
world, a change in super power
status for one group of nations
leaves a vacuum to be fi lied by
other nations. It is likely that
access to super power sta tus
would not fundamentally change
those realities which reflect even-
tual conflict with the new super
powers. The game wouldContinue
un til the con f I i c t had eli minated
all technological capabilities.
The second scenario incorporates
the likelihood that the industrial
blocs do not opt for nuclear war-
fare. The continuation of conven-
tional armament build-ups pro-
motes instabi I ity and constant pov-
erty for the lesser developed coun-
tries (LDC's~vJhile the indus-
trial bloc countries engage in
limited defensive wars of attri-
tion. This requires that present
regimes of LDC's lean toward mili-
tary ass i stance from the i ndus-
tri a I wor I d crea ti ng a net loss of
resource allocation for their
nations.
When LDC's opt for military
hardware, there is little technolog-
ical growth in their basic indus-
trial and agricultural industries,
and the mi I i tary hardware, when
used, yields nothing but the de-
mand for more external assis-
tance. The result is a resource
drain leading to economic stagna-
tion, as can be seen in many
third world countries.
--T-he-aTrection of government,
military, and industrial agencies
demonstra tes max i m i za t i on of re-
sources into war re I a ted indus t-
ries at the national and global
levels. Reports indicate that the
amount spent equipping each sol-
dier in the United States in 1977
was 60 times the amou n t spen t
educating each child (US ACDA
1978). Overall, the Warsaw Pact
and NATO nations spent about
Volume 8 No 2 November 1980 211
2,574 billion dollars in just 9
years, equa I to 20 times the F ed-
eral outlays spent on education
from 1970 to 1979 (Census Bureau
1979 138).
The continued involvement of
the military, industrial, and gov-
ernmen t agenc i es in these evo I v-
ing defense areas points toward
imperialism. The military estab-
Ii shment has become a major deter-
minant of international and nation-
al economic policies, fostering a
world view based on the probabili-
ty of war. That this institutional
arrangement is maintained in the
present is evident from the unen-
thusiastic response from business
and policy decision makers as re-
gards new regulations to control
arms transfers (Chase 1974 48;
ACDA 1978). There are no reduc-
tions, and much evidence of pros-
pect i ve esca Iat ions in defense
spending through the 1980's.
CONCLUSION The seemingly per-
manent mi I i tary threa t has protec-
ted the dialogue and world view
of the elites of industry, govern-
ment, and the military. The con-
ti nued development of newer forms
of nuclear destruction suggests
the development of command econ-
omies, which are different from
other market econom i es in tha t
they promote and rei nforce a gar-
rison society (Lidenfeld 1968 254,
271;Cooper 1978 128; Ebstein 1964
164; Anderson 1974 41). We see
this interplay of structural forces
by ana I yz i ng trends of us i ng econ-
omic resources. To support the mil-
itary and governmental operations
to contain communism, the indus-
try el i tes become en tan g Ied in an
economy planned by governmental
elements in a self-reinforcing cycl-
e. The result is a command econ-
omy increasingly subordinatedto
military functions.
The extensive use of economic
forces to further Un i ted Sta tes heg-
emony has not produced a freer,
safer world, but may guarantee
total annihilation of life for the
super powers (Brun 1978338). In-
ternational involvement, the ex-
porting of arms and technology
with military capabilities, guided
FREE INQUIRY in Creative Sociology
with political perspectives dictat-
ed by quasi-military civilian
elites, and the mechanism of cred-
it, gifts, and other forms of mili-
tary strategic assistance guaran-
tee an economy ma in I y based on
development, production and distri-
bution of war materials.
The fidelity of the military is
guaranteed as the need for com-
plexity and organization escal-
ates •. Mobility will be reinforced,
thus enhancing voluntary adher-
ence to the state social control
systems. The policies of the past
wi II be maintained in the future.
Underdeveloped countries wi II
maintain their position of a stag-
nant economy, while the indus-
trialized countries solidify their
economic base. The on Iy changes
wi II be in countries having vital
strategic resources, where the
super powers will struggle for
economic hegemony. The most like-
ly result is war forever, inter-
mittent limited wars, and big
wars; and after that, more war.
REFERENCES
.Air Force Secretary 1979 Air
Force Pol icy Letters for Comman-
ders. Washington DC Feb
.Anderson C 1974 Toward a New
Sociology. Homewood III Dorsey
.Brown Harold 1978 Dept of De-
fense Annual Rpt, Fiscal Year
1979. USGPO Feb
•Brown S 1978 An end to grand
strategy. Forei gn Pol icy 32 22-46
.Brun Ellen 1978 On the political
economy of detente. Theory & Soci-
ety 5 293-344 May
.Chace J 1978 America's new stra-
tegy of contai nment. Harpers 256
Jan
.Clark Dick 1978 U.S. corporate
interests in Afri ca. Rpt to Comm i t-
tee on Forei gn Relations, US Sen-
ate. Washington DC USGPO Jan
.Congressional Budget Office 1978
Analysis of President's budgetary
proposals for Fiscal Year 1979.
STAFF working paper. Washington
DC US Congress
.Congressional Outlook 1978 Arms
Sales. Washington DC 32 127-135
Fri Nov 17
Cooper C 1978 Nuclear hostage.
Foreign Policy 32 127-135 Fall
Volume 8 No 2 November 1980 212
•Dept of Sta te 1978 Un i ted Sta tes
contribution to international organ-
izations. 25th anniversary rpt to
Congress for F i sca I Year 1976.
Bureau of International Organiza-
tions Affairs. Jan
.Ebenstein W 1964 Today's Isms.
Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice Hall
.Galbraith John K 1977 Age of Un-
certainty. Boston Houghton Mifflin
.Hei Ibronner Robert 1980 Making
of Economic Society. 6th ed. Engle-
wood C I i ff s NJ Pren t i ce Ha I I
.Horowitz Irving L 1963 Power,
Pol i tics & People: Collected Essays
of C Wright Mills. Oxford U Press
.Klare M 1977 Supplying Repres-
s ion. Un i ted Sta tes Support for
Authoritarian Regimes Abroad.
Washington DC Institute for Policy
Studi es
.Klitgaard R 1978 Sending sig-
nals. Foreign Policy 32 103-106
Fall
.Landis Fred 1979 How twenty Chil-
eans overthrew Allende for the
CIA. Inquiry 2 16-20 Feb 19
.Lidenfeld Frank 1968 Radical Per-
spectives on Social Problems. Lon-
don Macmillan
.Mills C W 1958 Causes of World
War I II. NY Simon Schuster
.Ravenal E 1978 Walking on
water. Foreign Policy 33 151-160
Winter
.Reynolds L, T Lundgren 1976 Cor-
porate capital ism and mi I itariza-
tion. Social Problems in American
Society. Boston Holbrook
.Sherri II Robert 1972 Why They
Call it Politics: A Guide to Ameri-
ca's Government. New York Har-
court Brace Janovich
.Stei n Jeffrey 1978 Spy company
linked to hushup murder. Washing-
ton Watch 6 July 15
.Stockwell John 1978 In Search of
Enem ies. New York Norton
.US Arms Control & Disarmament
Agency 1978 Arms Con tro I, 1977
Washington DC USGPO
.US Bureau of Census 1979 Statisti-
ca I Abstract of Un i ted Sta tes 1979
Washington DC
.Wright Quincy 1965 Study of War.
U of Chicago Press
1970 How hostilities have
ended: peace treaties and alterna-
tives. Annals 392 51-61 Nov


War forever?

Varacalli, Joseph A.

Social change in the American Catholic Church

Dean, Dwight D.

Jordon Woods, Albert Y.

FREE INQUIRY in CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume11, N01, May1983 35
ALIENATION AND NEGATIVE VOTING ON A SCHOOL LEVY
Dwight D. Dean and Alberta Y. Jordon Woods, Iowa State University
PROBLEM. Providing education for all has
been firmly established policy in America for
many, many years. In 1961-62,72.1 percent of
school bond elections resulted in approval; in
1966-67 the rate was 66.6%; in 1971-72,
47.0% and in 1976-77, 55.6% (Grant &Eiden,
1981 75). This study was undertaken to deter-
mine the effect of both social structural and so-
cial psychological variables on negative voting
on a school levy in a midwest industrial-type
city of 42,000. It was conducted just prior to the
third and finally successful attempt after two
failures. It passed, in part, because the state
legislature had in the meantime changed the
law from requiring 55 percent approval to sim-
ple majority.
BACKGROUND
Even in Presidential elections, only about
half of eligible citizens vote, the percentage
having declined for several decades
(Cavanagh, 1981). It is suggested that low
rates of participation may reflect alienation
from the political system. (Carr, 1974). Others
have suggested that alienated people vote,
but express their alienation by voting nega-
tively to protest the "wrong" decisions "they"
have made (Nettler, 1957; Gold, 1962; Horton
&Hanson, 1961; Levin &Eden, 1962; McDill &
Ridlen, 1962; Templeton, 1966; Piele & Hall,
1973). Wright (1976) did notfind this to be true.
Alienation has affected opposition to fluorida-
tion (Richardson, 1963). Morris (1966) deter-
mined that alienation is a deterrent to well-
child supervision (Morris, 1966). Alienation is
inversely related to immunization (Gray,
Kesler, &Moody, 1967). Alienation has related
negatively to utilization of health services by
Mexican Americans (Hoppe, Heller, 1975).
Maddox (1981,295) stated "we are now in a
period when the bulk of the electorate (45.4%
in 1976) is alienated from politics in a very
basic sense, and when nonvoters (61.5%
were alienated in 1976) are no longer the sys-
tem's evidence of slumbering contentment". A
study of 334 women, found that alienation
scores were stable over an 8-year period (Zei-
ler, 1980).
Social background factors have also been
found related to patterns of voting (Schwartz,
1973). Voting is inversely related to social
class (Reiter, 1979). Those with less educa-
tion tend not to give support to school financial
issues (Tebutt, 1968; Gallup, 1969). The less a
voter's income, the less likely he will vote in
favor of a school financial issue (Fish, 1964;
Hatley, 1970; Gallup, 1969; Wilson &Banfield,
1971). Occupation, length of residence in the
relevent community, haVing children still in the
home, age, and religious affiliation are also
shown related to patterns of voting (Gallup,
1969; Tebutt, 1968; Parnell, 1964; Smith,
1968; King, 1973; McKalven, 1966).
There is, of course, also a relationship be-
tween social structural variables and aliena-
tion. Alienation has been found inversely re-
lated to social status (Citrin, 1975; Rowe,
1975; House & Mason 1975). The lower the
occupational status or family income the
higher the level of alienation (Neal & Groat,
1974). The less educated are more alienated,
(Braun, 1976; Maddi, 1979). Alienation was
shown inversely related to levels of education,
income, and age, (Otto &Featherman, 1975).
High alienation is related to low education, and
low need for accomplishment (Vredenburgh &
Sheridan, 1979). Martin (1976) related aliena-
tion to rural residence. Washba (1980) and
Kohn (1976) found the work situation related to
alienation. The lower income groups feel alien-
ated primarily in the sense of powerlessnes
(Josephson & Josephson, 1962).
HYPOTHESES. Both alienation and low so-
cial status may be interpreted as low integra-
tion in society, in empirically indicated by a
high degree of alienation, and specifically,
higher scores on powerlessness, normless-
ness, and social isolation. Low integration in
the community will be represented by low in-
come, lesser education, recent residence in
the community, having no children living at
home, and having a "minority" religious affilia-
tion. Catholics represent about 20 percent of
the population in this community, and have
parochial schools to support. Hypotheses: (1)
Low integration in the society yields a negative
voting response. (2) Low integration in the
FREE INQUIRY in CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY
com~unity yields a high negative voting re-
sponse.
PROCEDURE. The experimental design
was a cross-sectional study involving 4 of the
city's 60 precincts. The percentage of favor-
able vote was calculated for each precinct.
Two sets of contiguous precincts with widely-
differing favorable percentages of.38% and
59% and 50% and 62%, were selected in th~
hope that extraneous factors such as race,the
proximity of a parochial school, a possibly
more active Parent Teachers' Association,
would be randomized. A table of random num-
bers was used to select a third of the house;.
holds within each of the four designat~pre­
cincts. The resulting sub-samples vari~~~ill
86 to 95 cases. Questionnaires were handdis-
tributed andpicked up by students in arn,lIider-
graduate methodology course. 01368
households selected, 60 were excluded be-
cause of such legitimate factors as too recent
residency to qualify as a voter, or illness in the
family. Of the remaining 308 in the sample,
252 replies were received for a respOI'lSerate
of 82 percent from the selected households.
A questionnaire was prepared whictt in-
cluded Dean's scale of Alienation (Dean,
1961), selected social backgroundvariable$,
and questions about voting. The alienation
scale was a Likert-type, scored in such a·way
that a high score indicates high powerless-
ness. This scale was selected, in part, be-
cause it is widely-used (Dean, 1980). This In-
strument was constructed in the social pSy-
chological,tradition; "if men define things as
reaL", rather that the Marxian "objective"
sense. Seeman (1976 has presented a C()m-
prehensive review of empirical work done.frdm
the social psychological viewpoint. Foran at-
tempt to bridge the opposing theoreticalpo~i­
tions, see Geyer (1976) and Fischer (1966).
Four categories of voting behavior were
used: voted for the school levy, voted against,
did not vote on this issue, and was·urtl;lbleto
get to the polls. The latter two respOnse
categories were. inserted to provide a face-
saving mechanism for probable "no" vpters,
since the questionnaires were,as indicated
abOve, distributed by college students. Analy-
sis indicated that respondents in the latter two
categories did not differ significantly from the
"no" voters but did differsignificantly from "yes"
Volume11,No1,May1983 36
voters. When these two categories were com-
bined with the "no" voters, a prediction about
the outcome of the election was made: 51.3%
favorable. The actual outcome was 51.2% fa-
vorEl,ble'l-f?wever, for the purpose of a "pure"
sample, this study will utilize only respondents
from the definitely "yes" or "no" categories.
This reduced the sample from an N of 269 to
224.
The sample, thus delimited, consisted of
101 males and 123 females. Mean ages were
abQut 40 and 37, respectively. The modal oc-
cupationallevel was skilled craftsmen/kindred
yj0rkers;the mean North-Hattoccupational
prestige score was 64; 75 percent of the sam-
ple had a high school education or better. The
aVe'rage length of residence in the community
was about 10 years. With reference to religion,
73% were Protestants, 21 % were Catholics,
and the rest were unaffiliated.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. Expressed
as zero-order correlations, the relationship be-
tween the measured variables. and negative
voting was as shown in Table 1.
gnly three of the empirical hypotheses were
supported at the .05 level of confidence, but 9
of the 10 hypotheses except recent residency
w~rein the predicted direction (p = .002).
TA....E:1 CORRELATION OF ALIENATION
VARIABLES TO NEGATIVE VOTING
(r 05,225 = .13)
Alienation Variables Correlation
Powerlessness .22
Normfessness .17
SocfaUsolation .13
Low Education .19
Lowlneome .21
LoYlClCCUpation .03
RecentResidency -.18
No Children at Home .12
YoungerAge .10
"Minority Religion" .26
A hierarchical regression was uRdertaken.
Recalling that the literature indicated a positive
r~lati()nsnip between social structure and alie-
natiOn, and assuming the former to be the in-
dependent variables, the social backgrol;jnd
variables were entered first in the model, an(;j
then the social psychological ones. The results
are shown in Table 2.
FREE INQUIRY in CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume11,N01,May1983 37
TABLE: 2 HIERACHICAL REGRESSION OF
ALIENATION WITH SOCIAL VARIABLES
(n = 224) Hierachic
Regression
Social Variables Coefficient R2
It may be noted that after the social struc-
tural variables were entered, the multiple cor-
relation was .328 and R-squared was .108.
The addition of the alienation scores increased
the multiple r to .368 and R-squared to .136,
respectively. The venerable sociological vari-
ables of soclo economics status (SES), were
of greater importance in accounting for voting
behavior than the social psychological vari-
able, alienation.
A portion of the low significance may possi-
bly be explained by the decision to eliminate,
for the sake of a "pure" sample, the 45 respon-
dents who reported that they eitherdid not vote
on the school issue or were unable to get to the
polls. As indicated above, they were not sig-
nificantly different from the "no" voters, and of
course the inclusion of these 45 would change
the level of significance, though little if any-
thing of practical import would be added. It
would be highly desirable in future research to
obtain a sample of non-voters to compare with
those who do vote but who vote "against,"
since there have been numerous suggestions
that one result of alienation is apathy about
voting. Possibly rather than continuing re-
search into personality variables (or "traits"), it
would be useful to combine personality and
situation variables (Argyle and Little, 1972)
and/or construct an institution-related aliena-
tion scale, as Dean (1961) so long ago
suggested. With so Iowa proportion of direc-
tion being accounted for, it is imperative that a
search begin for other promising variables
which might lead to more practical results.
Income
Occupation
Children at Home
Education
Age
Religious Preference
Length of Residence
Social Isolation
Powelessness
Normlessness
.208
.213
.226
.260
.292
.294
.328
.348
.367
.368
.04
.05
.05
.07
.09
.09
.11
.12
.14
.14
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