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Academics’ adoption and use of moodle in selected South African Universities
No full textDissertation submitted to the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy on Information Science in the Department of Information Studies at the University of Zululand, South Africa [2024].The widespread adoption of e-learning resources since the start of the twenty-first century has significantly transformed the storage, access, and distribution of information in higher education institutions. The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the use of Learning Management Systems (LMS), such as Moodle, in many institutions worldwide, including those in South Africa. This study aimed to investigate the adoption and use of Moodle by academics at the University of Zululand (UZ) and the University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) with the view of providing practical and theoretical knowledge to develop best strategies that can improve the adoption and use of Moodle. The specific research objectives were:
1. To assess the level of use of Moodle by academics in the selected universities before, during, and after COVID-19.
2. To determine the purpose of Moodle use by academics in the selected universities.
3. To examine the factors influencing the behavioural intention of academics in the selected universities to use Moodle.
4. To identify the challenges faced in the adoption and use of Moodle among academics in the selected universities.
5. To examine the moderating effect of age, gender, and experience on the adoption and use of Moodle by academics in the selected universities.
The study was guided by the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), this study followed a positivist research paradigm, utilizing a quantitative approach. A Priori Power analysis determined the minimum sample size, and data were collected through an online questionnaire using Microsoft Forms. A total of 150 academics participated in the study (61 from UZ and 89 from UKZN), representing response rates of 47% and 68%, respectively. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM).
The results revealed that before COVID-19, most academics preferred face-to-face teaching, but during the pandemic, online teaching became more favoured. Post-COVID-19, a hybrid teaching approach was preferred. Academics mainly used Moodle for communication, delivering course content, and monitoring student attendance, as well as for assignments, quizzes, and chats. At UZ, performance expectancy significantly influenced academics’ intention to use Moodle, whereas effort expectancy and social influence did not. Facilitating conditions were also not influential. At UKZN, both performance expectancy and social influence significantly impacted the intention to use Moodle, while effort expectancy did not. Facilitating conditions and behavioural intention significantly affected usage behaviour. The moderating effects of gender, age, and experience were found to be insignificant at both universities. Challenges identified included poor internet bandwidth, lack of institutional policy on Moodle use, unreliable electricity supply, poor ICT skills among academics, and limited hardware availability. The study concluded that it is essential to provide conducive conditions for Moodle usage and develop an intuitive interface to enhance academics’ intention to use the platform. While the results are specific to UZ and UKZN and cannot be generalized to other universities, they contribute to the theoretical validity and empirical applicability of the UTAUT model in the context of Moodle adoption. The study recommended that both universities promote blended learning, encourage regular Moodle usage, and organize training sessions to equip academics with the necessary skills. These results have significant implications for e-learning implementation policies in higher education institutions in South Africa and globally. The originality of this study lies in its specific context, subject matter, and application. Its results are valuable for further research, teaching, and learning, as well as for informing e-learning policies in higher education institutions
Assessing the challenges and opportunities of free higher education in a rural based university
No full textThesis submitted to the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts in the Department of Social Work at the University of Zululand, South Africa [2024].Education has been heralded as a transformative tool essential for both individual and national development. Since 1994, following South Africa's democratic transition, the government and universities have sought to achieve equity in higher education amidst limited public finances, necessitating difficult decisions. This study reports on the challenges of free education at the rural based university, focusing on its socioeconomic, academic, and psychological impacts on students. This research was crucial in highlighting areas for enhancement and support mechanisms within higher education. Despite free education’s aim to provide equitable access, significant gaps remain, particularly regarding financial stability, academic support, and living conditions. The study's primary objectives were to evaluate the extent to which Free Education meets its goals and to identify areas requiring improvement.
The researcher conducted semi-structured interviews using a qualitative approach with 16 students who were receiving financial aid through NSFAS or other support mechanisms. Thematic analysis of the data revealed several key findings: students faced challenges in covering essential expenses, there was a notable mismatch between students' interests and their academic programmes, academic stressors were prevalent, and poor living conditions in campus residences adversely affected students' well-being. The findings suggest that while Free Education succeeded in increasing access to higher education, significant challenges persist. Recommendations include enhancing financial aid coverage, improving career guidance, addressing academic stressors, and upgrading campus living conditions to better support students' overall success
An intersectional analysis of the collective efficacy-drought adaptation nexus by small-scale farmers in uMkhanyakude District Municipality, South Africa
No full textAn intersectional analysis of the collective efficacy-drought adaptation nexus by small-scale farmers in uMkhanyakude District Municipality, South AfricaExploring the collective efficacy-adaptation nexus is urgent given the unprecedented climate change – a phenomenon that has negatively impacted and continues to impact societies and economies. Although existing research has documented the positive association between collective efficacy and climate-related hazards, a considerable gap remains in understanding this relationship in the South African context. Yet collective efficacy and adaptation research in African countries is imperative considering their collectivistic culture, high vulnerability, and low adaptive capacity. Against this backdrop, this study aims to analyse the collective efficacy–agricultural drought adaptation nexus by small-scale farmers in uMkhanyakude District Municipality (UKDM), KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The specific objectives of the study are to (a) map and quantify agricultural droughts in UKDM; (b) analyse how small-scale farmers in UKDM explain, experience, and adapt (including drawing on indigenous knowledge system) to agricultural drought; (c) assess the influence of drought on small-scale farmers' perceptions of collective efficacy and adaptation to drought in UKDM; (d) analyse the role of local governance in small-scale agricultural drought adaptation in UKDM; and (e) propose a framework to guide an intersectional collective efficacy-agricultural drought adaptation response. To achieve these objectives, a mixed methods approach was employed, drawing theoretical insights from the Protection Motivation Theory, Actor-Network Theory, and an intersectional Feminist Political Ecology perspective. The quantitative component of the study utilised remote sensing, Geographic Information Systems and Python for mapping drought conditions, complemented by a household questionnaire survey that yielded 384 responses from small-scale farmers. These responses were analysed using Microsoft Excel and Python. For the qualitative aspect, data collection included a key informant interview, observation, and document review. This data was then subjected to reflexive thematic analysis. The research findings, first, elucidate the spatio-temporal variability of drought within the UKDM. The results reveal pronounced seasonal fluctuations in VHI and identifies significant historical drought episodes, notably during 2002-2004 and 2015-2016, which correlate with El Niño events. Second, while adversely impacted by agricultural drought, small-scale farmers in the district proactively employ Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) in their adaptation measures. This active reliance on IKS challenges conventional Eurocentric paradigms and offers culturally nuanced and efficacious methods for adaptation. However, the potential of IKS have mainly been marginalised in contemporary climate policy discourse, underscoring the need for re-evaluation and inclusion in policy and programmes. Third, the study illuminates the crucial role of collective efficacy in enabling the broader acceptance and integration of IKS, as evidenced by the practices of small-scale farmers in the district. Fourth, the application of IKS provides a pathway for decolonising adaptation approaches, thereby subverting traditional power dynamics and facilitating the development of culturally appropriate and effective adaptation measures. Fifth, the crucial role of local governance in aiding small-scale farmers in adapting to agricultural drought in the district needs to be enhanced. Sixth, the study proposes a framework that could guide an intersectional approach to collective efficacy and agricultural drought adaptation. These findings have implications for policy and practice, offering actionable insights for various stakeholders involved in climate adaptation and governance. This study presents potential areas for further research. These include: the exploration of inter-organisational CE for efficacious adaptation and the analysis of customary land tenure reforms and their contribution to more inclusive and effective adaptation strategies while simultaneously safeguarding gender rights and indigenous knowledge
The efficiency of local citizens’ participation in local economic development projects in Mkhondo Local Municipality in Piet-Retief
No full textThesis submitted to the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts in the Department of Social Work at the University of Zululand, South Africa [2024].The aftermath of colonialism and apartheid resulted in many South African communities being impoverished, having high levels of unemployment and inequality. As a result, municipalities engaged in various programmes and projects to economically empower their communities in response to social and economic challenges. One such programme is Local Economic Development (LED). This study analyses the efficiency of local citizens' participation in LED within the Mkhondo local municipality in Mpumalanga province in South Africa.
An interpretivist paradigm was adopted as it was deemed relevant and is appropriate in qualitative studies. 19 community members involved in LED projects, six (6) municipal officials dealing with LED projects, and three (3) local ward councilors participated in semi-structured interviews while thematic analysis was used to analyse the collected data.
The study findings demonstrate that the municipality played a crucial role in ensuring that the local citizens understood the importance of participating in LED projects. They further reflected on the benefits of LED as an effective tool for alleviating poverty in rural communities. Despite the successes brought by LED in impoverished and disadvantaged communities, there are challenges that hindered community members’ full participation in LED. The study recommends that more funds be made available to rural municipalities to meet the demands of rural people and that the municipality should employ additional staff to ensure that there are sufficient municipal officials to comprehensively service members of rural communities
Understanding the nature and operations of India-Brazil-South Africa (IBSA) strategic mini lateral collaboration: 2009-2020
No full textDissertation submitted to the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Anthropology and Development Studies at the University of Zululand, South Africa [2024].The India-Brazil-South Africa Trilateral Cooperation Forum (IBSA) was established through a ground-breaking initiative by Presidents Thabo Mbeki and Lula da Silva, and Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 2003 at the United Nations General Assembly in New York. This initiative was exceptional because it united three substantial, economically robust, and dynamic countries from different developing continents. Brazil stands as the largest economy in Latin America, India accounts for one-fifth of the world's population, and South Africa is seen as a crucial driver for development within the African continent. Each of these nations has experienced rapid economic growth in recent years and has become increasingly integrated into global production networks with expanding international enterprises. The IBSA collaboration raised numerous positive expectations on economic, political, and developmental fronts. If successful, it could not only exemplify South-South cooperation but also enable each IBSA country to act as a catalyst for growth and development in their respective regions. The IBSA forum aimed to leverage the unique strengths and complementarities of India, Brazil, and South Africa to promote cooperation across various domains. This study delves into the nature and operations of IBSA's strategic collaboration from 2009 to 2020, focusing on the emerging trade geography and the broader implications of such a partnership. The initiative was envisioned to foster mutual growth and development, with the potential to significantly impact global economic governance and multilateral trade negotiations. Despite over a decade of collaboration, the full potential of IBSA's strategic partnership remains underexplored. The integrative efforts of these three nations have faced several challenges, including limited resources and institutional weaknesses within developing countries. Consequently, there is a need to comprehensively understand the dynamics of IBSA's cooperation, its impact on economic and developmental outcomes, and the barriers hindering its success. The primary aim of this study is to investigate the nature and operations of IBSA's strategic collaboration and its implications for economic, political, and developmental spheres. The specific objectives to examine the characteristics of the emerging IBSA trade geography; explore existing and potential areas of synergy and competition among the IBSA countries; project the impact of IBSA liberalization, considering scenarios of partial and full trade liberalization; and identify the hurdle and challenges faced at national, regional, and multilateral levels in achieving IBSA's goals. This study employs a qualitative research approach, utilizing secondary data sources such as trade statistics, policy documents, and academic literature. The research methodology includes thematic analysis to identify patterns and trends in IBSA's collaboration. The study also incorporates scenario analysis to project the potential impacts of different levels of trade liberalization among the IBSA countries. The findings reveal that while the IBSA collaboration has yielded some positive outcomes, its success has been moderate due to various challenges. The study identifies significant areas of synergy in trade, investment, and economic policies, as well as areas of competition that need to be managed effectively. The analysis shows that partial and full trade liberalization could have substantial positive effects on sub-sectors and overall welfare, but realizing these benefits requires overcoming institutional weaknesses and resource constraints. The study recommends that the IBSA countries should intensify their efforts to harness the synergies of trilaterally conceived projects and value additions rather than focusing solely on bilateral relations. Enhancing institutional capacities and mobilizing resources are crucial for achieving the strategic objectives of the IBSA partnership. Moreover, fostering a common approach to global and regional issues and encouraging the exchange of experiences can further strengthen the collaboration. In conclusion, the IBSA Trilateral Cooperation Forum holds significant potential for reinforcing the economic strengths of India, Brazil, and South Africa by synergizing their complementarities. Despite the moderate success of various initiatives due to resource and institutional constraints, the study underscores the importance of trilateral cooperation in promoting sustainable development and economic growth. Moving forward, a more integrated and synergistic approach is essential for maximizing the strategic value of the IBSA partnership and achieving its long-term goals
Effective communication in reducing overspending
No full textA dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Communication Science in the Department of Communication Science at the University of Zululand, South Africa [2023].Spending beyond one’s income and budget is a complex and global issue. Consumers obtain information about goods or services from various media to show the importance of communication in every sphere of life. This work examined the role of effective communication in reducing overspending among rural people in KwaDlangezwa, South Africa.
The purpose of this study is to examine whether effective communication can positively affect overspending by reducing it through financial literacy. The following issues were examined: factors that cause overspending, who is most likely to succumb to overspending, the consequences of overspending, and reducing overspending through financial literacy. The literature reviews, being the secondary information, described three spender types and implied that no one or nation is immune to overspending. The views of two theories were adopted: Hawkin’s Stern impulse buying theory (consumer behaviour theory) and Uses and gratification theory (UGT). This study employed both qualitative and quantitative research methods, based on the interpretivism philosophy, by gathering the views of willing participants in KwaDlangezwa – a rural area in KwaZulu-Natal province. 384 participants participated in the study altogether, but 365 were returned. 38 participants, which is 10% of the sample size, were interviewed using a semi-structured approach. The outcome of the information received from participants was coded and analysed for presentation using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) in a readable manner. Lastly, and based on the research findings, the study suggested guidelines for future research
Community education to community development
No full textA dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Community Work in the Department of Social Work at the University of Zululand, South Africa [2023].The aim of the study was to explore the role played by community education as a catalyst for community development through the lens of students and lecturers at a community education and training centre in eNkanjini Village, located in the Big Five Hlabisa Municipality of Northern KwaZulu-Natal.
This qualitative study is embedded in an interpretive research paradigm as it allows for the collected data to be packaged and presented according to the participants’ world views and interpreted according to their own words. The research design assumed a case study format to secure in-depth knowledge on the study phenomenon. The study setting was a Community Education and Training Centre (CETC) in the eNkanjini Village where the target population were identified and recruited because they could relate to the phenomenon under study from where conclusions to be drawn from. The sample included the centre manager, lecturers and students, who were all above the age of 18 and attended and worked at the centre as they were best able to provide rich information on the role of community education as a catalyst for community development. The centre manager was purposively sampled because he is the only manager employed at the centre and has extensive knowledge on the community, community education and community development in the area. The data collection instrument was semi-structured interviews with an open-ended interview guide because they allowed for probing to secure thick and broad information on participants experiences, perspectives and thoughts on the topic. The data analysis method used was thematic analysis because it facilitates flexibility in sorting and categorises data into themes that highlights differences and similarities of a phenomenon. The trustworthiness of the qualitative data was assuring through the use of dual recordings, comprehensive notes, a reflexive journal, purposive sampling and participants information saved to the iCloud, debriefing and the two-month data collection period. The theoretical framework of the study was the empowerment theory which argues that community participation promotes and empowers community development. It was adopted to this study to explain evidence related to the concepts of community education and development. The literature review, and the theoretical framework informed the discussion of the results.
The findings of the study revealed that getting a second educational opportunity and securing a certificate after successfully completing an exam was motivation for most participants as they perceived they could use their acquired skills to earn a living, improve their lives, pursue additional learning opportunities, and attend TVET colleges and universities. However, a lack of adequate classrooms and furniture, coupled with student absenteeism and limited books, were major challenges in the participants’ learning experiences at the CETC. Nevertheless, most of the participants were grateful for the second chance to improve their skills and qualifications and for the stipend they received. The sentiments of life improvement are aligned with the empowerment theory framework because it addresses social, political, policy, economic, educational and health issues and challenges. The views of participants regarding community education and community development was also supported by the framework in terms of procuring sustainable change and it explained why they are relevant. The study concluded that community education and training programmes are a valuable contribution to improving students’ skills and qualifications, their lives and communities. Community education and community development are complementary practices that act as catalysts for addressing community challenges and social ills and improve communities.
The study recommended that that the government builds libraries and student accommodation and supplies all the recommended and prescribed books, that the media showcase success stories to promote community education. These recommendations also came from the participants. Additionally, multidisciplinary teams that include non-profit organisations, private and public companies, funders, and the government should raise funds to improve the community education and training centre’s to ensure that they are adequately resourced for effective learning to ensue. Further collaborative research with political activists, traditional and cultural leaders, civic societies, and community development practitioners is also recommended to generate more data
Social work in the 21st century: scholarship and praxis reimagined towards vulnerability
Full text linkPerspectives of students and staff on the causes of underreporting of gender-based violence at a selected university
Full text linkThesis submitted to the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts in the Department of Criminal Justice at the University of Zululand, South Africa [2024].Gender-based violence (GBV) is a significant issue in higher education institutions (HEIs) globally, yet research on its prevalence on campuses remains limited. This gap has contributed to underreporting and inadequate responses from institutions. This study explored the factors behind GBV underreporting and proposed interventions to encourage victims to report. The research was guided by two theoretical perspectives: rational choice theory, which explains why victims may choose not to report, and the cultural acceptance of violence theory, which highlights how societal norms can normalise GBV and prevent victims from coming forward. A qualitative research approach was employed, using open-ended interviews and a focus group discussion to collect data from participants selected through purposive and snowball sampling. Thematic analysis revealed that intimidation was the leading factor contributing to underreporting, with victims fearing retaliation, disbelief, stigma, and the lack of trust in institutions. Additional factors included a lack of awareness of reporting procedures, financial dependence, and pervasive patriarchal norms. The consequences of underreporting affect both victims and institutions. Victims may experience mental health issues, poor academic performance, and isolation, while institutions risk reputational damage and perpetuate a culture of silence around GBV. To address these issues, the study recommended awareness campaigns, visible GBV offices, and anonymous reporting options. In conclusion, the research provides insights into the underreporting of GBV in HEIs and suggests practical interventions to create a safer, more supportive environment for students
Benzoic acid regulates the physio-biochemical responses of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seedlings under salinity stress
No full textThesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, Agriculture and Engineering in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science on Plant Science in the Department Agriculture at the University of Zululand, South Africa [2024].ENGLISH
Plant immobility renders plants constantly susceptible to various abiotic and biotic stresses. These stresses generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), which cause cellular damage through osmotic or oxidative stress, ultimately constraining agricultural productivity worldwide. To mitigate the challenges caused by these stresses, plants have evolved a variety of adaptive strategies, including the secretion of phenolic acids in response to environmental stresses. Phenolic acids can be categorised into different subclasses based on their chemical structures, such as hydroxybenzoic acids and hydroxycinnamic acids. Among them, benzoic acid (B.A) serves as a signaling molecule that mediates physiological responses to various environmental stresses and enhances stress tolerance.
This study investigated the effects of exogenously applied B.A on chia during germination and plant growth under salinity stress. Chia seeds were exposed to varying concentrations of sodium chloride (10–400 mM NaCI) and benzoic acid (10–400 μM) to determine the optimal conditions for plant growth promotion and salinity stress mitigation. Plant growth parameters such as shoot and root lengths, fresh and dry weights, relative water content, and leaf area were measured. Essential macronutrients were analyzed using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES).
Significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed with increasing NaCl concentration. Supplementing B.A to 100 mM NaCl improved plant performance (p < 0.05) compared to salinity stress (100 mM NaCl) alone. Exogenous application of B.A alleviated osmotic stress-induced damage by reducing superoxide anion (O₂˙⁻) levels, altering total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC), and preventing the increase in cell death, observed under 100 mM NaCl. These results suggest that exogenously applied benzoic acid enhances chia tolerance to osmotic stress by scavenging O₂˙⁻, preventing lipid peroxidation, and protecting against cell death. Furthermore, B.A application increased total phenolic and flavonoid content (p < 0.05), enhancing antioxidant defence and maintaining higher levels of essential ions such as potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), and calcium (Ca), which are crucial for salinity (NaCI) tolerance.
ISIZULU
ISIFINYEZO
Ukunganyakazi kwezitshalo kubenza bahlale bebhekene nezinsongo ezihlukahlukene ezibangelwa yisimo sezulu noma izinto eziphilayo. Lezi zinsongo zaziwa ngokuthi zikhiqiza ama-reactive oxygen species (ROS), okuyizakhi ezidala ukusabela okwesibili kwamangqamuzana (ukucindezeleka kwe-osmotic noma i-oxidative), okudala izinselelo ezinkulu ekukhiqizeni ezolimo emhlabeni jikelele. Ukuze zilwe nalezi zinkinga ezibangelwa izinsongo, izitshalo zithuthukise amasu ahlukahlukene okuvikelwa. Ama-phenolic acids ayingxenye ebalulekile yala masu, njengoba aziwa kakhulu ngokuthi akhishwa izitshalo uma zibhekene nezinsongo ezibangelwa yisimo sezulu noma izinto eziphilayo. Ama-phenolic acids angahlukaniswa abe izigaba ezahlukene ngokuya ngesakhiwo samakhemikhali awo, njenge-hydroxybenzoic acids kanye ne-hydroxycinnamic acids. I-Benzoic acid (B.A) iyisikhuthazi sokuxhumana kwezitshalo esithinta ukusabela ngokomzimba kwezitshalo ezimeni ezahlukene zezinsongo zemvelo futhi ithuthukise ukumelana nezinsongo. Lolu cwaningo luhlolisise umphumela we-B.A esetshenziswa ngaphandle ezitshalweni ze-chia ngesikhathi sokuhluma kanye nokukhula kwezitshalo ngaphansi kwezimo zokucindezeleka kwesawoti. Imbewu ye-chia yahlolisiswa ngokuthi ibekwe ezingeni elihlukahlukene le-sodium chloride (10–400 mM NaCl) kanye ne-Benzoic acid (10–400 μM) ukuze kutholakale izimo ezinhle kakhulu zokukhula kwezitshalo nokumelana nokucindezeleka kwesawoti. Izinkomba zokukhula kwezitshalo ezifana nobude besiqu nempande, izisindo ezimanzi nezomile, okuqukethwe kwamanzi okuhlobene, kanye nendawo yamahlamvu kwalinganiswa. Ama-macronutrients abalulekile ahlaziywa kusetshenziswa i-Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES). Kutholakale umehluko obalulekile (p<0.05) lapho kuqina amazinga e-NaCl. Ukwenezelwa kwe-B.A ku-100 mM NaCl kuthuthukise ukusebenza kwezitshalo (p<0.05) uma kuqhathaniswa nokucindezeleka kwesawoti kuphela (100 mM NaCl). Ukwenezelwa kwe-B.A kwangaphandle kwehlise umonakalo odalwa ukucindezeleka kwe-osmotic ngokunciphisa amazinga e-superoxide anion (O₂˙⁻), ukushintsha okuqukethwe kwe-total phenolic (TPC), okuqukethwe kwe-total flavonoid (TFC), nokufa kwamangqamuzana, okwakhuphuka ngaphansi kwe-100 mM NaCl. Le mibiko ibonisa ukuthi i-Benzoic acid esetshenziswa ngaphandle ithuthukisa ukumelana kwe-chia nokucindezeleka kwe-osmotic ngokukhipha i-O₂˙⁻, ukuvimbela i-lipid peroxidation, kanye nokuvikela ekuqothulweni kwamangqamuzana. Ngaphezu kwalokho, lolu cwaningo lwabonisa ukuthi ukusetshenziswa kwe-B.A kwandisa okuqukethwe kwe-total phenolic kanye ne-flavonoid (p<0.05), kuthuthukise ukuzivikela kwe-antioxidant futhi kwagcina amazinga aphezulu wezinsimbi ezibalulekile ezifana ne-potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), kanye ne-calcium (Ca), ezibalulekile ekumelaneni nesawoti (NaCl)