Arca Publishing

Ngoasong, Michael

Kimbu, Albert

Adeola, Ogechi

 
 
Title: Entrepreneurial Innovations in Small and Medium-Sized Hotels: Does Industry Context 
Play a Role? 
Author: Michael Z. Ngoasong1, Albert N. Kimbu2, & Ogechi Adeola3 
Affiliation: Open University1; University of Surrey2; Lagos Business School3 
Contact: michael.ngoasong@open.ac.uk 
Session Type: Presentation 
 
Abstract: 
We integrate approaches to the study of contexts in entrepreneurship and innovation to 
develop and apply a theoretical framework for analysing how industry context influences 
entrepreneurial innovations in small- and medium-sized hotels (SMSHs). Industry context 
includes the sectors, structures, and stakeholder groups that constitute an industry, all of which 
affect the scope for entrepreneurial entry, the nature of entrepreneurial innovations (new 
products, services, methods, or organization) and the strategies that owners/managers adopt to 
sequence their market entry choices and post-entry decisions (Garud, Gehman, & Giuliani, 2014). 
The framework depicts how the dimensions of industry context can be an asset (opportunities) and 
a liability (challenges and risks) (Welter, 2011) to the successful realization of entrepreneurial 
innovations by SMSHs in resource-scarce emerging destinations, such as those in Africa. 
Empirically, our research setting is African economies, where it has been suggested that, within 
the hospitality and tourism (H&T) industry, the competitive power of multinational hotel chains 
threatens the long-term survival of SMSHs (Mohammad, 2016; Sharma & Upneja, 2005), with 
implications for tourism development (Kimbu & Ngoasong, 2013). Empirical data was collected 
through in-depth qualitative interviews with owners and/or managers of 12 SMSHs in Kenya (3), 
Cameroon (3), Ghana (3), and Nigeria (3). The data were complemented by participant 
observation (authors stayed in each of the case hotels for five days, using restaurants and 
facilities, and holding informal discussion with staff and visitors) and informal interviews with 
senior representatives of related industry associations and government ministries. The selection 
of SMSHs was based on three criteria: (1) independent (i.e., not belonging to a hotel chain), (2) 
legal status as a limited company, and (3) having less than 120 rooms (e.g., Ahmad, 2015; 
Chaves et al., 2012; Sharma & Upneja, 2005). The transcribed data were content-analysed to 
uncover the comparative dimensions of the H&T industry context across the three countries 
and the associated contextual influences on SMSHs, with a focus on entrepreneurial innovation. 
The findings reveal the circumstances under which the H&T context can be an asset 
and/or a liability for entrepreneurs seeking to create new SMSHs and for established owner-
managers seeking new methods of organizing and sustaining the operations of their SMSHs. 
Lynch (2005, 2008) argues that, although qualitative research methods are rare in hospitality 
studies, they offer useful investigatory tools for opening up new avenues and shedding new 
theoretical insights into the production of knowledge about the practice of hospitality. The 
qualitative approach we adopted provides a critical voice to knowledge production, such as 
emancipation and empowerment. In terms of emancipation, entrepreneurial innovations can 
enable SMSHs to co-exist as complementary service providers alongside multinational hotel 
chains, rather than the latter being competitors seeking to crowd-out SMSHs, as suggested in 
previous research (e.g., Mohammad, 2016; Sharma & Upneja, 2005). One of the SMSHs studied 
upgraded its services and entered a collaborative arrangement, such that overflows of visitors at a 
nearby multinational hotel chain are lodged at the SMHS. This complementarity contributes to 
sustaining the development of the H&T industry. In terms of empowerment, the management of 
 
 
one SMSH developed a staff appraisal model to motivate employees, reduce pilferage, and 
improve the visitor experience. Through such an entrepreneurial innovation, the human capacity 
and skills development of hotel workers can be enhanced (e.g., Baum, Kralj, Robinson, & 
Solnet, 2016). Based on the findings, we provide a revised theoretical framework than can be 
applicable to other resource-scare destinations to understand how the dimensions of industry 
context influence entrepreneurial innovations in SMSHs. 
The strategies employed by SMSHs in using entrepreneurial innovations to respond to 
opportunities and challenges posed by the tourism industry context provide practical lessons for 
other SMSHs in emerging destinations. Understanding whether the dimensions of industry 
context serve as an asset or a liability is critical to making decisions about when to create a new 
SMSH and how to identify and respond to changes in the industry that can affect the survival and 
success of existing SMSHs. The policy implications include the provision of incentives to reward 
entrepreneurial innovations by SMSHs and measures to identify and address industry context 
challenges (e.g., destination competitiveness and supply chain challenges) (e.g., Baum, 2015). 
Limitations include small sample size; however, the wide variance in the managerial experiences 
and the age, size, and scope of operations of the hotels is significant for cross-case analysis and 
theory development. 
 
References: 
Ahmad, S.Z. (2015). Entrepreneurship in the small and medium-sized hotel sector. Current  
  Issues in Tourism, 18(4), 328–349. 
Baum, T. (2015). Tourism, SMEs, and Employment: Policies to Stimulate Job Creation.  
Discussion paper prepared for United Nations World Tourism Organization and the ILO 
for G20 Meeting, Antalya, Turkey. 
Baum, T., Kralj, A., Robinson, R.N.S., & Solnet, D.J. (2016). Tourism workforce research:  
  Review, taxonomy, and agenda. Annals of Tourism Research, 60, 1–22. 
Chaves, M.S., Gomes, R., & Pedron, C. (2012). Analysing reviews in the Web 2.0: Small and  
  medium hotels in Portugal. Tourism Management, 33(5), 1286–1287. 
Garud, R., Gehman, J., & Giuliani, A.P. (2014). Contextualizing entrepreneurial Innovation: A  
  narrative perspective. Research Policy, 43(7), 1177–1188. 
Kimbu, A.N., & Ngoasong, M.Z. (2013). Centralized decentralization of tourism development:  
  A network perspective, Annals of Tourism Research, 40(1), 235–259. 
Lynch, P. (2005). Sociological impressionism in a hospitality context. Annals of Tourism  
  Research, 32(3), 527–548. 
Lynch, P. (2008). The positioning of hospitality research, editorial. The Hospitality Review,  
  10(1), 3–4. 
Mohammad, A.A.A. (2016). How can small and medium-sized hotels compete with international  
  hotel chains? Egypt as a case study. Tourism Review International, 20(1), 57–70. 
Sharma, A., & Upneja, A. (2005). Factors influencing financial performance of small hotel in  
Tanzania. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 17(6), 504–
515. 
 Welter, F. (2011). Contextualizing entrepreneurship: Conceptual challenges and ways  
   forward. Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice, 35(1), 165–184. 
Zahra, S.A., Wright, M., & Abdelgawad, S.G. (2014). Contextualization and the advancement of  
  entrepreneurship research. International Small Business Journal, 32(5), 479–500. 
  


English

Entrepreneurial Innovations in Small and Medium-Sized Hotels: Does Industry Context Play a Role?

Milano Ostelea, Claudio

 
 
Title: How Can a Crab Promote Tourism in Northeastern Brazil? 
Author: Claudio Milano Ostelea 
Affiliation: Universitat de Lleida 
Contact: claudiomilano@icloud.com 
Session Type: Presentation 
 
The present proposal deals with the contemporary trend to create a heritage label based 
on human-animal interactions to attract tourists. This process will be demonstrated in this 
analysis of a case where the non-human animals are used to promote tourism. The presentation 
will discuss the relationship between local heritage, crab, and tourism activity in northeastern 
Brazil. The research is based on ethnographic fieldwork done over 13 months from 2011 to 
2014.  
The uça (Ucides cordatus cordatus) crab fishing in the Parnaiba River Delta perfectly 
illustrates the overlap between the different dimensions of heritagization in touristic markets. In 
northeastern Brazil, the role of the crab and crab fisherman has changed owing to the increasing 
touristic market. In the past, there has been a certain prejudice towards the figure of the crab 
fisherman. Presently this prejudice is currently being reassessed, given the increased revenue that 
the crab brings in and its important role in the touristic image of the region. In the last decade, 
the Parnaiba River Delta Crab Festival has played an important role in local heritage tourism 
promotion, attracting many tourists since its first appearance in 2006.  
This phenomenon leads us to reflect on the relationship between the local heritage, non-
human-animals, and their appropriation and interaction with the tourism industry. The collective 
image of the crab has been redefined as a locally commoditised heritage. In parallel, the crab and 
the crab fishermen have gone from having subsistence roles in local consumption to being 
emblems of heritage identity. The tourism phenomenon has facilitated this conversion, revaluing 
the practice of this activity and mitigating the prejudice experienced by crab and crab fishermen 
in the past.  
Finally, the presentation will focus on the commodification of non-human animals as an 
example of the contemporary tendency to heritagize identity emblems to attract tourists.   


How Can a Crab Promote Tourism in Northeastern Brazil?

Melis, Claudia

Chambers, Donna

Morton, Ian

 
 
Title: Interrogating Discourses of Intangible Cultural Heritage 
Author: Claudia Melis, Donna Chambers, & Ian Morton 
Affiliation: University of Sunderland 
Contact: bg66xt@research.sunderland.ac.uk 
Session Type: Presentation 
 
Abstract: 
Since 2003 understandings of intangible cultural heritage (ICH) appear to have been 
strongly influenced by the UNESCO World Intangible Cultural Heritage Convention (WICHC) 
(Munjeri, 2004). While it might be acknowledged that this Convention explored the notion of 
ICH providing a working definition, it seems to have “normalised” the understanding of ICH. In 
other words, this Convention is, arguably, the main body of knowledge and point of reference for 
the study, understanding, and management of ICH. 
Drawing on insights from the Foucauldian dyad power/knowledge (Foucault, 1980), it is 
suggested that the 2003 WICHC has contributed to the creation of an object of knowledge that, in 
turn, has established a binary opposition between tangible and intangible cultural heritage. 
Exploring this binary opposition can provide insights on the power relations behind this 
“consolidating order” (Butler, 2004), as well as an understanding of how ICH is interpreted and 
represented. Furthermore, given the ontological nature of representation and the discursive 
construction of space, the analysis will also acknowledge how a discourse of ICH shapes spaces 
for tourism (Inglis & Holmes, 2003). 
Tangible and intangible cultural heritage and the way they are represented are of central 
importance in tourism, where they are used as unique selling propositions through the 
exploitation of their distinctiveness. Understanding the power/knowledge relations behind 
processes of representation is critical because it will have an impact on the image of the 
destination that will, in turn, circulate and reinforce a specific discourse of the destination and its 
inhabitants. Research in this regard will fill a gap in literature where more attention to Foucault’s 
notion of power in tourism is advocated (Ong, Ryan, & McIntosh, 2014). 
Against a universalizing definition, countries that are in the process of ratifying the 2003 
UNESCO WICHC are called to interface with their own representations of ICH. Thus, a critical 
examination of the process of ratification of this Convention is a useful way to interrogate ICH 
discourses. The purpose of this work is to highlight, through a Foucauldian inspired discourse 
analysis, the mechanisms used to talk about, and to represent, intangible cultural heritage in two 
exemplar countries: Sardinia (Italy) and Scotland (UK). The notion of World Intangible CH is 
used in the context of this study as one that transcends the national boundaries where both Italy 
and the United Kingdom play a role: Italy has ratified the 2003 WICHC, and Sardinia is the 
region with the majority of listed WICH expressions. The United Kingdom has not yet ratified 
the Convention, but Scotland aims to do so, and several initiatives have been conducted in this 
regard. Taking this into account, the aim of this study is to examine two key institutional 
documents related to ICH in both countries in order to understand the underlying mechanisms 
through which a notion of intangible cultural heritage is constructed in the two regions, and also 
what narratives about intangible cultural heritage are normalized and represented as ‘truth’ and 
what narratives are excluded and deemed to be unthinkable about ICH in Sardinia and Scotland. 
 
References: 
Butler, J. (2004). Undoing gender. Psychology Press. 
 
 
Foucault, M. (1980). Power/Knowledge: Selected writings and other interviews, 1972–1977.  
Pantheon, New York. 
Inglis, D., & Holmes, M. (2003). Highland and other haunts: Ghosts in Scottish tourism. Annals  
of Tourism Research, 30(1), 50–63. 
Munjeri, D. (2004). Tangible and intangible heritage: From difference to convergence. Museum  
International, 56(1–2), 12–20. 
Ong, C.E., Ryan, C., & McIntosh, A. (2014). Power-knowledge and tour-guide training:  
Capitalistic domination, utopian visions, and the creation and negotiation of UNESCO’s 
Homo Turismos in Macao. Annals of Tourism Research, 48, 221–222 
 
  


Interrogating Discourses of Intangible Cultural Heritage

Hoarau-Heemstra, Hindertje (Hin)

Kline, Carol

 
 
Title: Know Your Customer: Sharing Values for Innovation in Domestic Animal-Based Tourism 
Experiences 
Author: Hin Hoarau-Heemstra1 & Carol Kline2 
Affiliation: Nord University Business School1; Appalachian State University2 
Contact: hin.h.heemstra@nord.no 
Session Type: Presentation 
 
Abstract: 
The constant accumulation of incremental and revolutionary changes continuously 
redefines and reshapes the arena of tourism occupied by firms, tourists, and other agents (Hall & 
Williams, 2008). Many tourism innovation researchers have argued that these innovation 
processes and innovations can only be understood by examining the social interactions of tourism 
innovators with their environment and especially with their customers (Shaw, Bailey, & Williams, 
2011; Cabiddu, Lui, & Piccolini, 2013). 
The tourism sector is increasingly based on customer experiences where firms and 
tourists interact closely at all stages of their relationship (Shaw et al., 2011), and particularly 
during co-creation. In this paper, we explore the co-created tourism experience as an encounter 
of values that inspires tourism business to innovate. Firms and tourists interact more closely (than 
non-service industries) at all stages of their relationship (Shaw et al., 2011), particularly during 
co-creation. Close interaction between different actors during tourism experiences offers 
possibilities for knowledge sharing and innovation (Hoarau & Kline, 2014) but also bears the 
risk for misunderstanding and clashing values. 
Actors have different value systems that are translated into behavior and into the design 
and co-creation of tourism experiences. To understand how to be cognizant of (and maybe to 
assess) the values (of all stakeholders) is to maximize the transaction for all parties, as well as to 
create a ‘breeding ground’ for innovation. The business mindset for success is how can I help the 
customer feel good about this exchange/experience? In order to deliver high-quality tourism 
experiences, tourism providers need an understanding of their customers’ values as well as the 
value systems from which they themselves operate. 
The purpose of this paper is to use the theory of service dominant logic (SDL) for 
understanding stakeholder value systems. We explore how tourism providers get to know 
customers and their values and develop a framework that can be applied to various tourism 
contexts: from low customer participation to high customer participation. SDL is particularly 
relevant for tourism management because it is based on an understanding of the interwoven 
fabric of individuals and organisations (Shaw et al., 2011). 
We contribute by extending the SDL framework by crystalizing value and other 
components. As such, we deconstruct and further apply SDL/co-creation to experience tourism. 
We carry out a study of tourism experiences that are co-created together with domestic animals. 
The interaction with animals, the role of animals, and the value attached to animals is culturally 
and personally dependent. This setting allows us to explore how customers, as well as providers, 
feel about the use of animals in tourism products, how they should be treated, and how they are 
perceived by the several actors involved. We have chosen to do a cross-cultural comparison of 
tourism experiences in the United States and northern Europe. By means of qualitative, semi-
structured interviews with tourism providers, we shed light on how values are understood by the 
respondents and observed in their experiences, as well as explore whether awareness of 
customers’ values lead to innovation/change in the co-creation of tourism experiences. 


Know Your Customer: Sharing Values for Innovation in Domestic Animal-Based Tourism Experiences

Finkel, Rebecca

 
 
Title: Cross-Disciplinary Approaches for Critical Futures in Events and Tourism 
Author: Rebecca Finkel 
Affiliation: Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh 
Contact: rfinkel@qmu.ac.uk 
Session Type: Workshop 
 
Abstract: 
This session focuses on critical approaches to understanding and researching within 
events and tourism frameworks. It involves a conversation amongst a panel of critical scholars in 
order to bring relevant topics alive for open discussion. Through sharing cross-disciplinary 
experiences in developing conceptual and empirical work, best practices, lessons learned, and 
future directions can be charted. 
Similar to the trajectory of tourism, more and more cities and countries around the globe 
are employing planned events to address socio-economic issues. Critical events research has 
been a developing field for over two decades, and many scholars have focused political, social, 
and economic studies by framing them around international planned events and their impacts on 
cities and countries worldwide. This session seeks to build upon this in order to develop further 
critical discourses and dialogues pertaining to the impacts of events on diverse communities and 
places by exploring connections and convergences with critical tourism studies. 
  


Cross-Disciplinary Approaches for Critical Futures in Events and Tourism

Eger, Claudia

Scarles, Caroline

Miller, Graham

 
Title: Caring at a Distance: Towards Care-ful Imaginaries and Practices 
Author: Claudia Eger1, Caroline Scarles2, & Graham Miller2 
Affiliation: University of Warwick1; University of Surrey2 
Contact: c.eger@warwick.ac.uk 
Session Type: Presentation 
 
Abstract: 
To build a hopeful imaginary of another economy, it is crucial to understand the 
dynamic interplay between the fluid boundaries of the organisational, individual, and societal 
realm in everyday business practice. This creates a complex framework in which business–
stakeholder negotiations occur, raising questions about to what extent and in which ways 
practices of responsible behaviour can be co-constructed. Building on limited existing research 
on care in business ethics, this study contributes to the conceptualisation of caring at a distance, 
reflecting on the wider social, geographical, and philosophical context in which such an ethic of 
care is being voiced. 
The articulation of distance in care relations is studied with a focus on corporate 
philanthropy in tourism. Different stakeholders involved in care practice are included in the 
research process to move away from a unidirectional view of care towards understanding 
multidirectional care networks. This is achieved through adopting a case study strategy that 
dis/locates care practice by drawing together the remote spaces and presences of tour operators 
and local stakeholders in the negotiation of care, using the example of the Education for All 
project in the High Atlas Mountains region of Morocco. 
Findings show that tour operators’ investment in destination projects emerges primarily 
through an ethic of care between them and destination communities, underpinned by multiple 
layers of performed, displaced, and shared responsibility. Trust is positioned as a central driver 
of these processes, which combine, unsettle, and reconfigure distance and closeness. This might 
open up opportunities to shift from a unidirectional view of care towards shareable 
interpretations of interdependencies in care practice that build on responsibility and 
vulnerability. 
 
  


Caring at a Distance: Towards Care-ful Imaginaries and Practices

Boule, Kelsey

Mason, Courtney

 
Title: Ethical Issues in Sport Hunting Tourism Economies: Investigating Stereotypes, 
Sustainability, and Inclusion in Western Canada’s Hunting Industry 
Author: Kelsey Boule & Courtney Mason  
Affiliation: Thompson Rivers University 
Contact: kelseyboule@shaw.ca 
Session Type: Presentation 
 
Abstract: 
As one of the most profitable forms of tourism in western Canada, hunting wildlife has 
been an integral part of the region’s history and economy. Over the last three years, there has 
been an increase in the popularity of sport hunting, which has led to much debate and 
controversy. This research project aimed to add to these conversations by discussing the core 
ethical practices that are imperative to the sport and the growth of hunting as a tourism activity 
from the perspective of avid hunters. The goal was to analyse conversations with local hunters as 
a way to better understand three key hunting industry issues: stereotyping, sustainability, and 
inclusion in the context of growing the hunting tourism sector. An examination was completed of 
the history of the sport, the sustainability of land and animal resources, and the effects of hunting 
tourism on both the environment and local economies. Although some research was found 
pertaining to the motivational factors that entice hunters to participate in the sport and their 
attitudes towards hunting tourism, there appeared to be a lack of effort to create a holistic view 
on the key ethical issues of hunting economies. There was a gap in knowledge regarding modern 
hunters’ views on the stereotyping of hunters created by media and the exclusion of local 
huntsmen from both the sport and decision making processes within the industry. More 
specifically, there was a lack of any particular method to acknowledge local hunters’ input on 
these issues in western Canada. The objective of this project was to investigate ethical hunting 
practices and how they are integral to the successful development of sport hunting and 
conservation economies in western Canada. Primary research, in the form of semi-structured 
interviews, was used as the principal investigative method. Interviews were conducted with 
hunters who are active participants in sport hunting in western Canada. The hunters who were 
interviewed debunked stereotypes by revealing the reasons behind their love for the sport, which 
differ from what the media depicts. It was also observed that these men believe they are among 
the best conservationists, as the preservation of both land and animals is imperative to the 
longevity and growth of the sport. They viewed hunting as a sustainable activity, as they believe 
that, with a combination of local inclusion, fair tag allotment, and proper funding for 
conservation efforts, hunting can continue to grow without a detrimental impact to the 
environment or the animal populations. It was evident from the conversations that hunters feel 
strongly that the inclusion of resident hunters in the decision-making process is necessary to 
avoid retaliation and create holistic practices when increasing hunting tourism. It was revealed 
that integrating these opinions would arguably lead to the successful development of sport 
hunting and tourism economies within western Canada. These findings, including a discussion 
on current literature, investigative tools, and the implications for other hunting economies, will 
contribute to the Critical Tourism Studies conference in the form of a presentation within the 
critical leisure topic area. 
 
 
  


Ethical Issues in Sport Hunting Tourism Economies: Investigating Stereotypes, Sustainability, and Inclusion in Western Canadaâs Hunting Industry

Benjamin, Stefanie

 
Title: Breaking Benjamin: A Woman’s Pilgrimage to New Mexico 
Author: Stefanie Benjamin 
Affiliation: University of Tennessee, Knoxville 
Contact: sbenjam1@utk.edu 
Session Type: Presentation 
 
Abstract: 
The majority of research method courses preach about the importance of the researcher 
being objective, unemotional, and completely divorced from their subjects. However, I’m 
proposing a different epistemological view with this study exploring first-hand the film-tourism 
industry of Breaking Bad in Albuquerque, New Mexico. 
For this study, I investigated, from a visual auto-ethnography approach informed by 
feminist theory, the Breaking Bad television/film-tourism industry phenomenon in Albuquerque, 
NM. Using a visual auto-ethnography methodology, I expressed my emotional experiences as a 
female participant observer with Breaking Bad’s film tourism landscape in NM. Additionally, I 
shared my story and experiences of being a film-tourist through social media outlets. Using a 
visual auto-ethnography and feminist theory framework, I explored the following research 
questions: 
R1: In what ways does being a female fanatic film-tourist of Breaking Bad affect the 
tourist pilgrimage to Albuquerque, New Mexico? 
R2: What emotional and sensory components are connected when the Breaking Bad 
tourist experiences hedonist acts that mimic fictional characters and landscapes? 
This study took place in Albuquerque, New Mexico, June 20–22, 2016. I participated in 
two Breaking Bad Film Tours (RV tour and biking tour) as a tourist. I used the social media 
application, Snap Chat, to document my lived experiences with the tours. I created a film with 
my personal video diaries and snap chats to document my lived experiences. The footage 
captured showcases the environment of the two tours and my lived experiences of being a female 
film-tourist. 
This study is informed by an ethnography and feminist theory framework. Goodall 
(2000) argues for a more feminine communication style in academia by emphasizing rapport- 
building through listening and observing (for example, reflecting, personally, about meanings) 
rather than problem solving. This methodological approach allowed me to report my findings in 
creative expressions. For this study, I addressed my personal, emotional relationship with film- 
tourism as an “emotional sociology” framework (Goodall, 2000, p. 59). The video and 
presentation shared will showcase the different perspectives of film tourism from a feminist 
framework and my pilgrimage of traveling as a solo female tourist. 
 
 
 
  


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