Arca Publishing

Benali, Amira

 
Title: Volunteer Tourism Mystification: A Global Capitalism with a Human Face 
Author: Amira Benali 
Affiliation: University of Geneva 
Contact: emirabenali@gmail.com 
Session Type: Presentation 
 
Abstract: 
This presentation aims to offer a critical analysis of volunteer tourism through a dialogue 
between macro and micro perspectives, demonstrating how individual histories of volunteers are 
inscribed in the dynamics of globalization and articulated through market logics. 
In the age of neoliberalism, with the rise of social inequalities and global ecological 
problems, many voices have been raised to denounce the limits of the current system and the 
necessity to develop ethical and responsible alternatives, in order to address these problems. 
Ambivalent motivations (feelings of guilt combined with a sense of responsibility) drive people 
to escape the current system, namely the capitalist system, perceived as the primary cause of all 
these plagues. This rejection is obviously expressed through consumption or anti-consumption. 
However, ironically, the market logic based on consumer needs satisfaction and creation 
succeeds in absorbing these forms of resistance and turning them into new markets. Hence, 
resistance and alternative forms of consumption are perceived as new opportunities for 
expansion. As Holt (2002) explains: 
The market today thrives on…unruly do-it-yourselves who engage in non-conformist 
producers. Since the market feeds off of the constant production of difference, the most creative, 
unorthodox, singularizing consumer sovereignty practices are the most productive for the 
system. Furthermore, in this international context of environmental, economic and social crisis, 
the government’s failure to respond to these issues on a national and international scale has led to 
a trust crisis among citizens (Hancock, 1989). Consequently, civil society and non-governmental 
organisations (NGO) have taken the lead in the field of international development and 
humanitarian aid. Especially after the independence of colonies, development became the new 
articulation that governs the relationship between the West and the so-called “third world” 
countries (Hancock, 1989). Thus, humanitarian workers became new heroes, a vocation that 
fascinates many young westerners who aspire to work in this field and change the face of the 
world. Alain Ehrenberg (1991) points out the central role of consumption, in the society of 
individuals, which is to express oneself. He suggests that consumption has recycled the ideals of 
the liberation movement of the seventies and has built on it an ideal of personal realization and 
freedom where everyone could create her/his own legend. 
In this context, the volunteer tourism market has emerged, offering the perfect formula 
for a total immersion in a Hero Journey (Cambell, 1949), an experience that combines tourism 
and volunteering through participation in social projects in developing countries, such us 
orphanages, in order to contribute to poverty alleviation (Wearing, 1991). It allows young people 
without experience to play the role of humanitarian workers during their holidays while 
reconciling their altruistic motivations (helping the poor) and their self-interest (leisure and self-
realization). 
Early research on volunteer tourism took an advocacy stance focusing on its numerous 
advantages in term of community development, environment preservation, medical assistance, 
and educational support (Wearing & McGehee, 2013). However, this phase of advocacy was 
 
followed by a wave of criticism, which pointed out the possible negative impact of volunteer 
tourism. The dark side of this emerging market as a new form of exploitation and colonialism 
was highlighted both inside and outside of academic circles (Wearing & McGehee, 2013). 
Although this awareness has risen, the volunteer tourism industry does not seem to be affected 
by this criticism. The proliferation of NGOs and travel agencies acting in this field is proof of 
this. 
Drawing from insights from post-development theory (Escobar, 1995) and the society of 
individuals (Giddens, 1991; Ehrenberg, 1991), the purpose of this paper is to understand the 
volunteer tourism marketplace by analysing the websites of three volunteer tourism agencies. 
Preliminary results show that the volunteer tourism market finds its source from the need, or 
rather the pressure, of the contemporary individual to be someone exceptional and to surpass 
her/himself. Inspired by the colonial era, grounded in western individualistic society, and 
legitimized through the illusion of development, the volunteer market is a mystification of a 
global capitalism with a human face. 
 
References 
Ehrenberg, A. (1994). Le culte de la performance. Calmann-Lévy. 
Escobar, A. (1995). Imagining a post-development era. Power of Development, 211–227. 
Giddens, A. (1991). Modernity and self-identity: Self and society in the late modern age. Stanford  
University Press. 
Hancock, G. (1989). Lords of poverty: The power, prestige, and corruption of the international aid 
business. Atlantic Monthly Press. 
Holt, D. B. (2002). Why do brands cause trouble? A dialectical theory of consumer culture and 
branding. Journal of Consumer Research, 29(1), 70–90. 
Joseph, C. (1949). The hero with a thousand faces. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 
Wearing, S. (2001). Volunteer tourism: Experiences that make a difference. CABI. 
Wearing, S., & McGehee, N.G. (2013). Volunteer tourism: A review. Tourism Management, 38,  
120–130. 
 
  


English

Volunteer Tourism Mystification: A Global Capitalism with a Human Face

Ryan, Louise

Picken, Felicity

âToo Much to Look AtâSea, Seagulls, Art!â: The Experiential Appeal of Art Exhibitions in Public Leisure Spaces

Bell, Claudia

Heart Strings Cycle Tours, S.E. Asia: The Humanitarian Gaze

Lau, Virginia

Sensory Perceptions of Asian Destinations

Zhang, Xiaoyue

Morgan, Nigel

Phong Ly, Tuan

Politics and Museum Representations: Views from Postcolonial Chinese Destinations

Yoo, Hyekyung

Wilson, Erica

Accompanying Partners in Conference Travel: A Gendered Perspective

Manuel-Navarrete, David

Buzinde, Christine

Kohli, Neena

Kalavar, Jyotsna

 
 
Title: Boundaries of Pilgrimage Tourism Enclaves: Purity Meets Pollution on the Shores of the 
Ganges 
Author: David Manuel-Navarrete1, Christine Buzinde1, Neena Kohli2, & Jyotsna M Kalavar3 
Affiliation: Arizona State University1, Allahabad University2, Penn State University3 
Contact: davidmn@asu.edu 
Session Type: Presentation 
 
Abstract: 
Kumbh Mela, the world’s largest pilgrimage gathering, is a Hindu religious festival that 
takes place on the shores of the River Ganges. This water body is renowned amongst Hindu 
pilgrims for its sacredness and purity. Yet, consistent industrialization, urbanization, and 
modernization around Ganga are arguably turning this festival into a sort of “inverted” enclave: a 
pre-colonial inclusive space enclosed within a postcolonial country. Interviews and focus groups 
with pilgrims were conducted at the 2013 Kumbh Mela in Allahabad, which hosted about 120 
million pilgrims over two months. Findings suggest boundary-work dynamics through which 
local and international pilgrims seek to protect the symbolic and material integrity of the 
festival’s space from surrounding environmental and social pressures, including water pollution 
and tourism commoditization. International travelers presented significant differences in 
perceptions of pressures and boundaries in comparison to local pilgrims. Even though local 
pilgrims are aware of river pollution, discursive strategies allow decoupling this material fact 
from spiritual experience. Ancestral myths, ceremonies and religious identities provide a cultural 
boundary to isolate these temporary enclaves from material effect and cultural discourses of 
Western modernity and colonialism. We argue that exploring mass religious festivals as 
“inverted” enclaves, where the West is left outside, provides a counterpoint to well-established 
analyses of tourism enclaves as exclusionary spaces created by the global North in the global 
South. 
 
 
 
 
 
  


Boundaries of Pilgrimage Tourism Enclaves: Purity Meets Pollution on the Shores of the Ganges

Kosonen, Janne

Sposato, Anu

Ismo AlakÃ¤rppÃ¤, Ismo

 
 
Title: Co-Living with Light: Autoethnography of Nature-Based Tourism in Lapland 
Author: Janne Kosonen, Anu Valtonen, & Ismo Alakärppä 
Affiliation: University of Lapland 
Contact: jakosone@ulapland.fi 
Session Type: Presentation 
 
Abstract: 
This study addresses one significant, yet seldom explored, constituent of tourist 
experience: light. While light affects every experience in obvious or subtle ways, our focus is on 
nature-based experiences, as this context allows us to explore the intriguing relation between 
natural and artificial light, human and non-human bodies, and the environment. The more 
specific aim of the paper is to work towards a theoretical lens that allows us to trace the role of 
light in the consumption and production of nature-based experiences. To this aim, it draws on 
anthropological studies on luminosity and acknowledges the materiality and sociality of light as 
well as its agential quality. The paper also builds on, and seeks to expand, existing literature on 
nature-based tourism, and that of mobility. 
A multi-sited autoethnographic study—conducted by the second author—took place in 
Finnish Lapland, in the woods, fells, and the outdoor Arctic zoo, during the dark autumn and 
winter season in 2015–2016. The empirical materials consist of written notes and vignettes, 
photographs, and videos based upon participant observations. The preliminary analysis first 
details and characterizes different types of light identified during the fieldwork. It demonstrates 
how the natural light takes various forms that are materially and culturally specific. Think of, for 
instance, sunshine, moonlight, aurora borealis and stars, reflections from the snow or ice, or 
flames from the fireplace. These types of light are changeable depending on the weather 
condition (e.g., fog) or on the form of the landscape. Also, the artificial or electric light comes in 
many varieties—from the bright light of flashlight, to the reflections of city light in the sky, or 
the blue light of smart phones. The situated and temporal nature of these various lights (e.g., the 
momentary and withdrawing nature of the ray of light) is then given attention. 
Second, the analysis turns to explore the agency of light: what do these different lights 
do? How do they alter tourist experiences? How does the changing light change the perception of 
the entire environment, or affect social relations? How does the material light affect corporeal 
experiences, for instance, the warmth of the sun versus the cold of shadow? Or affect materially, 
smelting the snow, or framing the moves of animals and their sleeping patterns. 
Third, the analysis ponders how the light is used in various ways and for various purposes. 
Lights can be orchestrated, for instance, by guides, to produce an experience, or as a social 
technique to reveal the beauty of the place, or to connect, separate, or guide people. Light also 
can be used as an affective technique to create an experience or a particular atmosphere. All this 
shapes experiences in culturally and situationally specific ways. Altogether, these empirical 
insights enrich existing literature on nature-based experiences and that of mobility by way of 
pointing to the moving nature of light and its ability to affect and move people and animals. 
 
  


Co-Living with Light: Autoethnography of Nature-Based Tourism in Lapland

Knollenberg, Whitney

Barbieri, Carla

 
 
Title: The (Re)Creation of Distilling Culture in North Carolina and Its Potential Impact on 
Tourism Product Development 
Author: Whitney Knollenberg & Carla Barbieri 
Affiliation: North Carolina State University 
Contact: whitney.knollenberg@ncsc.edu 
Session Type: Presentation 
 
Abstract: 
The history and activities associated with the production, procurement, and consumption 
of distilled spirits are integral in North Carolina’s (NC) culture. The modern interpretation of 
these activities is often romanticized; however, the reality was that these activities resulted from 
North Carolinians trying to maximize resources during hard economic times. Recently, new 
economic opportunities related to distilling have arisen in NC, where entrepreneurs are 
answering consumers’ demand for high-quality spirits. 
The proliferation of the craft distilling movement in NC has led to the creation of 
attractions (e.g., distillery tours and tastings) which augment tourism products in urban and rural 
destinations. A similar process occurred with Kentucky’s Bourbon Trail, which has generated 
millions of dollars in direct spending and tax revenues (Kornstein & Luckett, 2014s). North 
Carolina’s distillers and their surrounding communities may gain tourism’s benefits if a 
statewide distillery-related tourism product can be developed. The challenge of conceptualizing 
and promoting NC’s distilling culture has emerged as the development of a distillery-related 
tourism product advances. The representation of culture in tourism requires industry leaders to 
address issues of power among stakeholders and utilize policy and planning to create an accurate 
and sustainable representation of culture (Caton & Santos, 2007; Pritchard & Morgan, 2001). 
The distillers are stakeholders who hold great power in the creation of distilling culture. 
Therefore, this exploratory study attempts to address the research question: How are NC 
distillers creating a distilling culture? 
Qualitative data from five in-depth interviews with distillers across the state was used to 
address the research question. Interviews were audio-recorded and analyzed using open and axial 
coding. Through the use of Grounded Theory, three major themes emerged related to the creation 
of distilling culture in NC. Some distillers are drawing on the state’s historic connection to 
distilling, which was often related to their own familial connections to production of moonshine: 
“But [my grandfather] always used to tell me that he had a doctor’s degree in bootleggin’ and he 
said that…when it gets in your blood, you can’t get it out” (Distiller 4). Other distillers connect 
their culture to craft production: “But in terms of what we’re doing, we make it all the way from 
scratch. To me, that is the future of the craft industry” (Distiller 3). Finally, many distillers 
described a culture that combined tenets of historic distilling with modern elements of craft 
distilling, specifically in the context of local foodways: “We’re primarily an orchard region.... 
And so our primary moonshine product would be a brandy, an apple or peach brandy for 
example” (Distiller 1). 
The existence of multiple interpretations of distilling culture may prove challenging in 
efforts to establish distillery-related tourism products. It may be difficult for distillers developing 
a craft culture to accept and contribute to a culture focused on historic moonshine production. 
Such discrepancies could lead to problems in creating an inclusive tourism product. Thus, the 
approach to creating a culture which respects elements of distilling’s history in NC while 
incorporating craft production may prove most appealing to the distillers. 
 
 
 
References: 
Caton, K., & Santos, C.A. (2007). Heritage tourism on Route 66: Deconstructing nostalgia.  
Journal of Travel Research, 45(4), 371–386. 
Kornstein, B., and Luckett, J. (2014). The Economic and Fiscal Impacts of the Distilling Industry  
in Kentucky. Retrieved from: http://usi.louisville.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/KDA- 
USI-Final-Report-2014.pdf 
Pritchard, A., & Morgan, N.J. (2001). Culture, identity and tourism representation: Marketing  
Cymru or Wales? Tourism Management, 22(2), 167–179. 
 
  


The (Re)Creation of Distilling Culture in North Carolina and Its Potential Impact on Tourism Product Development

Kama, Amit

Ram, Yael

Mizrachi, Isaac

 
 
Title: A Genuine Gay-Friendly City: The Touristic Benefits of LGBT Inclusion 
Author: Amit Kama1, Yael Ram2, & Isaac Mizrachi3 
Affiliation: The Academic College of Emek Yezreel1; Ashkelon Academic College2; College of 
Management, Israel3 
Contact: amitt8860@yahoo.com 
Session Type: Presentation 
 
Abstract: 
Israel, as a country, and Tel Aviv, as a city, are not immediately associated with LGBT 
(lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender) tourism. However, Tel Aviv positioned itself in recent years 
as a gay-friendly city and initiated many LGBT events. As of 2007, the Tel Aviv city hall has 
been involved in the organization, financing, and promotion of the Pride Parade. Annual Pride 
Parades have been observed around the world in order to commemorate the Stonewall riots of 
1969 and celebrate LGBT people’s demands for full social, cultural, and legal inclusion. In 
recent years, the Tel Aviv city hall, in collaboration with LGBT groups, has been organizing 
many Pride-related events that last an entire week. Tel Aviv city hall appoints a (gay) city 
councilor to be in charge of the parade, allocates a special budget to the event, and promotes the 
event overseas. This municipal co-optation of the pride events magnifies a rather unique 
phenomenon, in which the LGBT community is embraced by a local government. The most 
conspicuous symbol for this phenomenon is the LGBT community center in the center of Tel 
Aviv, which is operated and funded by the city hall. Consequently, it can be argued that, unlike 
other cities and governmental agencies that promote LGBT tourism but do not necessarily 
exhibit genuine homophobic-free policies, Tel Aviv is truly gay-friendly. 
A literature review has yielded an empirical lacuna, for only a few studies have looked 
into the LGBT tourists’ actual on-site experiences, from their perspectives. Moreover, no studies 
that compare LGBT to non-LGBT tourists have been found to date. The current study thus tries 
to address these lacunae by an attempt to understand and analyze the experiences of LGBT and 
non-LGBT tourists who attend the Pride events, versus those of other tourists. The present study 
sheds light on the experiences of tourists from abroad in order to see if, and how, the two groups 
differ from one another. 
The current study, based on a two-step survey, explores the motivations, attitudes, 
satisfaction, and behaviors of 167 tourists, both LGBT and non-LGBT, to the Pride events of 
June 2016 and compares them to a control group (n = 130) of LGBT and non-LGBT tourists to 
Tel Aviv two months afterwards. The tourists came from 33 countries, and more than a half 
arrived from five countries: the United States (19%), Germany (12%), the United Kingdom 
(9%), Italy (7.2%), and France (6%). Their ages ranged from 20 to 85, with a mean age of 38.8 
(SD = 12.2). 
Regardless of the participants’ affiliation with the LGBT community or attendance at the 
Pride events, they tended to report Tel Aviv as gay-friendly, and hence tolerant and embracing. 
Although tourists to the Pride events considered Tel Aviv to be more gay-friendly (M = 6.38, SD 
= 1.166)1 compared to tourists to non-Pride events (M = 5.90, SD = 1.474), all of them highly 
appreciated this aspect, and consequently said they would recommend visiting Tel Aviv to 
others. Generally speaking, Tel Aviv was scored very high in satisfaction (M = 6.51, SD = .769) 
and in recommendation intentions (M = 6.52, SD = .852). Moreover, the majority come here 
repeatedly (more than half of the participants reported being return visitors to Tel Aviv). We 
conclude that urban destinations could gain a competitive advantage by providing a true sense of 
 
 
gay-friendliness via high visibility of the LGBT community and its social inclusion and 
acceptance, as well as safeguarding its civil rights. In other words, a marketing strategy cannot 
be based on an image per se, but has to be grounded on a substantial integration of the LGBT 
community within a city’s social fabric. Furthermore, we would like to accentuate the conclusion 
that positioning a city as gay-friendly is attractive to non-LGBT tourists, as well. 
Finally, this paper will discuss the queer critique, known as “pinkwashing,” aimed at the 
campaigns to attract tourists to Israel. In the last couple of years, the pride parades have been 
encountering opposition within the LGBT community. Queer groups and activists have been 
adamant regarding the “pinkwashing” character and nature of the homonormative and 
homonational aspects of these events. They criticize the official foreign policy of Israel that 
portrays it as an LGBT haven in order to conceal the occupation of the Palestinians and their 
abject position. “Pinkwashing” is an umbrella term to describe the efforts by Israeli authorities to 
promote the positive image of the state of Israel by portraying it as a true haven for the LGBT 
community. Pinkwashing serves thus as a propaganda apparatus in order to camouflage the 
occupation and the problematics of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The present study, however, 
corroborates the success of these campaigns. 
 
1Scales were Likert type (1–7). 
 
 
  


A Genuine Gay-Friendly City: The Touristic Benefits of LGBT Inclusion

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