TUGraz OPEN Library

Girardi, Dominic

Holzinger, Andreas

Dimensionality Reduction for Exploratory Data Analysis in Daily Medical Research

Chegini, Mohammad

Shao, Lin

Andrews, Keith

Schreck, Tobias

Toward Multimodal Interaction of
Scatterplot Spaces Exploration
Mohammad Chegini
Graz University of Technology
Graz, Austria
m.chegini@cgv.tugraz.at
Keith Andrews
Graz University of Technology
Graz, Austria
kandrews@tugraz.at
Lin Shao
Graz University of Technology
Graz, Austria
l.shao@cgv.tugraz.at
Tobias Schreck
Graz University of Technology
Graz, Austria
t.schreck@cgv.tugraz.at
Abstract
The latest generation of large vertically-mounted multi-
touch displays bring new opportunities for solving visual
analytics tasks. Due to their size, it is possible to visualise
and collaboratively interact with high-dimensional datasets
and multiple views (e.g., scatterplots, scatterplot matrices
and parallel coordinates). However, using only multi-touch
for input can be overly restrictive. Other modalities need to
be considered to utilise the power of these screens fully. By
adding natural language interaction, the user can directly
interact with the visual analytics application from a distance.
Incorporating eye-tracking can help narrow down what the
user is looking at or is interested in. In this paper, some of
the challenges of using multi-touch as input for the analy-
sis of scatterplot spaces on large vertically-mounted multi-
touch displays are discussed and addressed by proposing
the incorporation of other interaction modalities.
Author Keywords
Multimodal; interaction; scatterplot; multi-touch; high-dimensional
visualisation.
ACM Classification Keywords
H.5.m [Information interfaces and presentation (e.g., HCI)]:
Miscellaneous
Introduction
Large vertically-mounted multi-touch displays are a new
medium for interactive visualisation of high-dimensional
datasets. These screens can visualise a large number of
records in multiple views and provide sufficient space for
collaboration between multiple users. Figure 1 shows a se-
tup of such a display. Due to the nature of touch screens,
using multi-touch as the sole input modality can have some
drawbacks, including the gorilla arm effect [2], having to
be within touching distance of the screen, and not being
able to reach all parts of the screen without stepping side-
ways. This paper discusses how these problems can be
addressed by integrating other interaction modalities, such
as gesture recognition (Kinect), eye-tracking, and speech
recognition. Figure 2 demonstrates an alternative scena-
rio, in which the user is using eye-tracking and speech to
interact with the scatterplot.
Figure 1: Interacting with the
screen using multi-touch (up
close).
Figure 2: Interacting with the
screen using eye-tracking and
speech (distance).
Related Work
Research on combining multiple interaction modalities has
a long history. In one of the earliest works, Wang [6] pro-
posed VisualMan, a device and application-independent
model to integrate various modalities including gaze and
voice into a user interface.
Some researchers have begun to look at how to integrate
multiple interaction modalities into visual analytics interfa-
ces. Srinivasan and Stasko [5] presented Orko to explore
the idea of using natural language interaction for network
exploration. Shao et al. [4] suggested using eye-tracking
as input for exploration of patterns in scatterplot spaces.
They used eye-tracking to detect which plots have been in-
spected by the user to suggest the most dissimilar plot by a
guideline. In other work, Chegini et al. [1] implemented an
application in which two users can work together on a large
vertically-mounted multi-touch display to explore scatterplot
spaces and suggested adding other interaction modalities
besides multi-touch, including eye-tracking to better utilise
the large screen.
Multimodal Interaction for Scatterplot Spaces
Scatterplot matrices and parallel coordinates are two well-
known techniques for visualising high-dimensional data-
sets. Shao et al. [3] proposed a way to interactively analyse
scatterplot matrices using a regression lens. The user can
select an interesting set of records in a scatterplot and the
regression model for that subset of records is then visu-
alised. Later, as shown in Figure 3, Chegini et al. [1] pre-
sented a similar application in which two users can col-
laboratively analyse a scatterplot side-by-side on a large
vertically-mounted multi-touch display. While developing the
prototype, the authors observed several issues:
• Using a vertically-mounted multi-touch display for
long periods results in fatigue in the arms, the so-
called gorilla arm effect [2].
• On a large vertically-mounted display, it is not possi-
ble to reach all places on the screen without moving
sideways.
• In order to touch the display, users must stand within
arm’s reach.
• Such a display is potentially inaccessible to disabled
users.
To address these issues, the multi-touch interaction can
be augmented with both speech input and eye-tracking,
resulting in the following benefits:
Figure 3: An example of solving visual analytics tasks on a large
vertically-mounted multi-touch display.
• Selecting a particular scatterplot from the scatterplot
matrix can be achieved by looking at the scatterplot
of interest and issuing a voice command.
• Selection can potentially be achieved by fixing a gaze
for a certain period of time.
• Voice commands (e.g., search or zoom) can be is-
sued from further away.
Future Work
In the future, interaction modalities other than multi-touch
should be added to the current system. Eye-tracking, na-
tural language interaction and gesture recognition would
all be desirable. The research will focus on solving col-
laborative visual analytics tasks using currently available
modalities, not on creating novel modalities or interaction
techniques.
References
1. Mohammad Chegini, Lin Shao, Tobias Schreck, Keith
Andrews, and Dirk J. Lehmann. “Interaction Concepts
for Collaborative Visual Analysis of Scatterplots on
Large Vertically-Mounted High-Resolution Multi-Touch
Displays”. In: Proc. Forum Media Technology (FMT
2017). 2017.
2. Rupert Goodwins. Windows 7? No arm in it. May 28,
2008. http://zdnet.com/article/windows-7-no-arm-in-it/.
3. Lin Shao, Aishwarya Mahajan, Tobias Schreck, and
Dirk J. Lehmann. “Interactive Regression Lens for Ex-
ploring Scatter Plots”. In: Computer Graphics Forum
36.3 (2017), pages 157–166.
4. Lin Shao, Nelson Silva, Eva Eggeling, and Tobias Schreck.
“Visual Exploration of Large Scatter Plot Matrices by
Pattern Recommendation Based on Eye Tracking”. In:
Proc. ACM Workshop on Exploratory Search and Inte-
ractive Data Analytics. 2017, pages 9–16.
5. Arjun Srinivasan and John Stasko. “Orko: Facilitating
Multimodal Interaction for Visual Exploration and Analy-
sis of Networks”. In: IEEE Transactions on Visualization
and Computer Graphics 24.1 (2018), pages 511–521.
6. Jian Wang. “Integration of Eye-Gaze, Voice and Ma-
nual Response in Multimodal User Interface”. In: Proc.
IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and
Cybernetics. Volume 5. Oct. 1995, pages 3938–3942.


Toward Multimodal Interaction of Scatterplot Spaces Exploration

Brandner, R.

Ringhofer, A.

Grabner, M.

Probabilistic models for the withdrawal behavior of single self-tapping screws in the narrow face of cross laminated timber (CLT)

Schmallegger, Max

Gescheidt, Georg

ORIGINAL PAPER
Benzil/triethylamine: a photo-reducing system for Cu2+
Max Schmallegger1 • Georg Gescheidt1
Received: 11 August 2017 / Accepted: 18 October 2017 / Published online: 3 February 2018
 The Author(s) 2018. This article is an open access publication
Abstract We have investigated the photo-induced reduc-
tion of Cu2?–Cu0 using benzil/triethylamine mixtures. The
formation of elemental Cu is indicated by the appearance
of its characteristic plasmon absorption peaks at 515 nm
and 620 nm. Importantly, the nature of the counterion of
the Cu2? salt affects the reduction process. In the presence
of Cl-, the reduction proceeds faster than with SO4
2-.
Photo-induced electron transfer between excited benzil and
triethylamine leads to the benzil radical anion, which acts
as the reducing agent for Cu2? and generates Cu0.
Graphical abstract
Keywords Photo-induced electron transfer  Radicals 
Metal reduction  Spectroscopy
Introduction
Nanomaterials have experienced a vast growth in interest
over the last years. They have been utilized in fields like
nonlinear optics and electric conduction [1–3]. Metallic
nanoparticles have gained attention because of their
remarkable chemical properties, leading to applications,
e.g., for molecular imaging [4] or catalysis [5].
A key point for producing nanoparticles is the reduc-
tion of metal salts to elemental metals in a controlled
way. Chemical, thermal, radiation-chemical, sonochemi-
cal, and photochemical methods have been followed in
this context [6–9]. However, many of these approaches
require expensive reagents, hazardous reaction conditions,
and long reaction times combined with difficult isolation
procedures [7, 10]. Photochemical methods offer a valu-
able access to metal reductions allowing temporal and
spatial control [11–18]. In such procedures, organic rad-
ical anions, produced by photochemical reduction, act as
mediators, reducing metal cations to elementary metals
[16, 19].
A group of reagents often employed in photo-reduc-
tions of metal salts include ketones such as acetophenone
[11], acetone [20], and benzophenone [21]. The use of
ketones combined with hydrocarbons, alcohols, ethers,
and amines has been reported [22, 23]. In such reactions,
highly reactive ketyl radicals or ketyl radical anions are
formed as intermediates. A substantial requirement for the
reducing species is their oxidation potential, since it has
to match the potential for the reduction of the metal
cation. In terms of metals, the generation of Cu
nanoparticles from Cu2? salts has been of prominent
interest because of the favorable availability of Cu salts
and the activity of Cu as catalyst, in photovoltaics, elec-
tronics, and optics [24–27].
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this
article (https://doi.org/10.1007/s00706-017-2085-7) contains supple-
mentary material, which is available to authorized users.
& Georg Gescheidt
g.gescheidt-demner@tugraz.at
1 Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Graz
University of Technology, NAWI Graz, Stremayrgasse 9,
8010 Graz, Austria
123
Monatsh Chem (2018) 149:499–504
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00706-017-2085-7
The aim of our investigation is to inspect if benzil (1,2-
diphenylethane-1,2-dione, 1) can be utilized for the photo-
reduction of Cu2? salts. Benzil is one of the most common
(and low cost) diketones and its photochemistry has been
well characterized [28, 29]; nevertheless, benzil has yet
only seen limited use in photo-induced redox reactions
with metal salts.
While the photo-reduction of ketones and diketones in
the presence of donor systems, e.g., amines, and the
intermediate formation of ketyl radicals are well under-
stood, there are still remaining questions with regard to the
mechanism of metal reduction. The mechanisms depicted
in Scheme 1 have been suggested for the photo-reduction
of metal salts. Here, either ketyl radicals [11, 12, 17, 21] or
the ketyl radical anions [30] act as electron donors.
In this publication, we report on the reaction of photo-
excited benzil (1) and triethylamine (2) as a model donor
with Cu2? salts. We followed the reactions by steady-state
photolysis (SSP), continuous-wave electron paramagnetic
resonance (cw-EPR) spectroscopy, and laser-flash photol-
ysis (LFP).
Results and discussion
Steady-state photolysis
We photolyzed (steady state) a solution of 1 and 2 in
CH3CN containing either CuCl2 or CuSO4 and observed a
new strong band centered at 515 nm and a weaker band at
620 nm (Fig. 1). They can be attributed to characteristic
plasmon absorption bands of colloidal Cu [31–35]. It is
well established that the plasmon absorption of elemental
copper depends on the size of the aggregates formed
[34–36]. Therefore, the two absorption bands are in line
with an initial formation of small copper aggregates
resulting in the band centered at 515 nm, whereas that at
620 nm points to the slower growth of bigger colloids.
Control experiments with solutions of the mixtures 1/2, 1/
CuCl2 (CuSO4), 2/CuCl2 (CuSO4), and singly CuCl2 or
CuSO4 (see SI) substantiate these findings. None of these
experiments yielded the bands at 515 and 620 nm upon
photolysis. The solution 1/2 showed absorption spectra
indicating the bleaching of the band attributed to parent
Fig. 1 UV–Vis spectrum obtained upon photolysis of 1/2 and CuSO4 (a) or CuCl2 (b); the arrows represent the irradiation wavelength (365 nm)
500 M. Schmallegger, G. Gescheidt
123
benzil at 360 nm [37], whereas no spectral changes could
be detected for the remaining controls. Accordingly, the
copper salts are not decomposed in our irradiation experi-
ments and are inert toward benzil in the absence of the
amine and vice versa.
Remarkably, the rates for the reduction depend on the
counterions of the copper salts (Fig. 2). For CuCl2, the
bands attributed to the plasmon absorption grow in at a
faster rate than for CuSO4. This is in line with the results of
Pacioni et al. as well as Soares et al., who reported that
chloride anions catalyze the disproportionation mediating
the conversion of Cu? to Cu0 [33, 37]. In addition, elec-
trochemical studies have shown that catalytic amounts of
Cl- accelerate the reduction of Cu2? to Cu?
[38, 39, 40] (Scheme 2).
Continuous-wave electron paramagnetic resonance
When we observed the solutions of 1 in the presence of 2 in
CH3CN by cw-EPR under continuous irradiation, we
detected the characteristic EPR spectrum attributable to the
radical anion of benzil (1-). Simulations reveal (Fig. 3,
Table 1) an excellent agreement with previously published
data [41, 42]. The formation of 1- indicates that upon
irradiation, 1 undergoes excitation and intersystem crossing
to the triplet state 1* [43] and is subsequently reduced by 2,
as indicated in Scheme 3. This is in line with previous
studies showing that also for other aromatic ketones such
as benzophenone, the corresponding radical anion was
observed in photolysis experiments in the presence of
alcohols [44] and amines [45].
The radical cation of 2?, formed together with 1-, is
not detected in the EPR spectrum. It is well established that
radical cations of amines undergo follow-up reactions,
leading to both diamagnetic and paramagnetic species
[23, 37, 46, 47] (Scheme 4). Besides parent 2, the a-ami-
noalkyl radical 4 may serve as an electron-donating species
[17, 37, 48]. Therefore, an additional reduction of Cu2? by
4 should be considered when discussing the redox reactions
in this system [48]. However, it was shown that 2? can
undergo rapid follow-up reactions leading to the formation
of diamagnetic species [37, 49, 50]. Additionally, product
analysis by 1H NMR after irradiation (see Supporting
Information) reveals formation of N,N-diethylethenamine
(5), further rationalizing that the electron transfer from
triethylamine-derived radicals only plays a minor role in
this system.
Fig. 2 Time trace of the formation of colloidal copper monitored at
515 nm and 620 nm upon photolysis of the 1/2 system and CuCl2 or
CuSO4
Fig. 3 cw-EPR spectrum of 1-
obtained on the reaction of 1/2
in CH3CN under continuous
irradiation; experimental (left)
and simulation (right)
Table 1 Hyperfine coupling constants of 1- in CH3CN/2
Position hfc/mT
CH3CN Literature [42]
aortho (4H) 0.103 0.099
ameta (4H) 0.039 0.036
apara (2H) 0.108 0.112
Benzil/triethylamine: a photo-reducing system for Cu2? 501
123
Laser-flash photolysis
To evaluate the role of 2 for the reduction of Cu2? to Cu0 at
a short (ns) time scale, we carried out laser-flash photolysis
(LFP) experiments. Figure 4 shows the transient absorption
spectra of 1/2 in CH3CN and the corresponding reference
measurements, in which 2 was omitted. Photolysis of 1 in
CH3CN yields two distinct peaks at 350 nm and at 480 nm,
which are both attributable to 1* [31, 35, 43]. Upon addi-
tion of 2 to the solution, significant changes in the spectrum
occur: The absorptions centered at 480 and 350 nm dis-
appear, while two new, broad bands centered at 360 and
580 nm appear; they are assigned to 1- [51, 52, 53]. This
indicates a fast electron transfer reaction of 1* with 2,
leading to the formation of 1- and 2?, respectively
[37, 54].
Conclusions
Our spectroscopic investigation shows that benzil acts as
an efficient photo-reducing agent for copper salts in the
presence of an amine donor. The efficiency and the rate of
the photo-reduction are markedly influenced by the coun-
terions of the copper salts. We have demonstrated the
intermediate formation of the benzil radical anion by cw-
EPR and LFP. From our experiments, we conclude that 1-,
formed upon photolysis in the presence of 2, is highly
redox active and can reduce Cu2? to Cu0. In addition, no
indication that the corresponding radical cation of 2 takes
part in the reduction of Cu2? to Cu0 could be found. This is
presumably due to the fast follow-up reaction of 21,
leading to the formation of diamagnetic products that are
not redox active.
In future work, this cost-effective and simple approach
for the photo-induced reduction of Cu2? to elemental
copper could be used for the production of copper
Fig. 4 Transient absorption spectra of radicals produced by photolysis of 1 in CH3CN (left) and CH3CN/2 0.2 ls after the laser pulse. See text
for the assignment of the absorption bands
502 M. Schmallegger, G. Gescheidt
123
nanoparticles by employing different irradiation times as
well as characterization methods such as transmission
electron microscopy (TEM) to form nanoparticles with
defined shape and size [16, 55, 56].
Experimental
Benzil (1, Fluka), triethylamine (2, Sigma-Aldrich), cop-
per(II) sulfate (Roth), copper(II) chloride (Riedel-de Hae¨n),
and acetonitrilie (Riedel-de Hae¨n) were obtained at the
highest purity available and employed as received.
Steady-state photolysis
UV–Vis spectra were recorded on a fiber optic diode array
spectrometer (J&M Analytik AG). Photolysis was con-
ducted using a Hamamatsu Lightingcure LC4 (Hg–Xe
lamp, 3500 mW/cm2, kmax = 365 nm). The concentrations
of 1, CuSO4, and CuCl2 were 5 mM for all measurements.
The concentration of 2 was 100 mM in all measurements.
Polyvinylpyrrolidone (10 mg) was added to all samples to
help solubilize the copper salts and precipitate the formed
Cu0.
EPR spectroscopy
Cw-EPR spectra were recorded on a Bruker X-band
spectrometer (EMX, 100 kHz field modulation) at room
temperature with 0.025 mT field modulation amplitude.
The signals correspond to the steady-state concentration of
radicals accumulated in the flow system (0.4 mm quartz
flat cell) under continuous irradiation The concentrations of
1 and 2 were 100 and 500 mM, respectively.
Laser-flash photolysis
LFP experiments were carried out with an LKS80 spec-
trometer (Applied Photophysics). The excitation of the
samples was carried out with the light of a frequency triplet
Spitlight Compact 100 (Innolas) Nd:YAG laser at 355 nm
(8 ns pulse duration; 10 mJ/pulse energy). The concentra-
tion of 1 in solution was adjusted to achieve absorbance of
around 0.5 at the excitation wavelength. The concentration
of 2 was 100 mM in all measurements.
1H NMR experiments
1H NMR spectra (32 scans) were recorded on a 200 MHz
Bruker Avance DPX spectrometer. Chemical shifts (d) are
reported in ppm relative to tetramethylsilane (TMS) using
the residual undeuterated solvent as an internal reference
(acetonitrile-d3, dH = 1.94 ppm).
Acknowledgements Open access funding provided by Graz
University of Technology. We thank NAWI Graz and COST (action
CM1201) for supporting this work.
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give
appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a
link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were
made.
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