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Measuring and Analyzing the Relationship between the Tariff Barrier and the Foreign Exchange Reserves of the Central Bank of Iraq (2004-2024)
Full text linkThis research investigates the relationship between the tariff barrier and the foreign exchange reserves of the Central Bank of Iraq over the period 2004–2024. The primary objective is to analyze how changes in Iraq’s tariff policies—specifically the imposition and collection of customs duties—impact the accumulation and management of foreign exchange reserves. The study is motivated by the hypothesis that the weakness of Iraq’s tariff barrier adversely affects the status of central bank reserves, especially given the country’s heavy reliance on oil exports and the prevalence of customs evasion through informal border crossings.The methodology employs an econometric approach, utilizing the Nonlinear Autoregressive Distributed Lag (NARDL) model to assess both short- and long-run relationships between the tariff barrier and foreign exchange reserves. Unit root and cointegration tests confirm the suitability of the NARDL model, which is shown to explain approximately 77.3% of the variation in reserves, with the remainder attributed to factors such as customs evasion and external economic shocks.
Key findings indicate that while a higher tariff barrier can increase government revenues and support foreign exchange reserves, its effectiveness is limited by the dominance of oil prices and persistent smuggling. The tariff barrier ratio remains weak relative to import volumes, and despite occasional increases in customs revenues (notably during crises), the main driver of reserve fluctuations is oil revenue. The econometric results confirm a positive long-run relationship between the tariff barrier and foreign exchange reserves, but also highlight the need for improved customs administration, reduced evasion, and economic diversification
Effects of decentralisation on local public spending in Cameroon
Full text linkThis study investigates the effects of fiscal decentralisation on local public spending in Cameroon, using a panel dataset of 213 municipalities over the period 2010–2020. The research aims to assess how the transfer of fiscal and administrative responsibilities from the central government to local authorities influences both operational and investment expenditures at the municipal level. Methodologically, the analysis employs ordinary least squares (OLS), fixed effects, and system GMM estimators to address endogeneity and unobserved heterogeneity, with local public spending (including both operating and investment outlays) as the dependent variable and fiscal decentralisation—measured as the share of municipal expenditures in total expenditures—as the key independent variable. Control variables include local revenues, urbanisation, central government subsidies, conflict incidence, and mayoral tenure.
Key findings indicate that fiscal decentralisation has a positive and statistically significant impact on both operational and investment spending, with a more pronounced effect on investment expenditures. The results underscore the importance of increasing central government transfers to municipalities to enhance local public investment. However, the study also highlights the negative impact of urbanisation and conflict on local public spending. The findings are robust across various model specifications and support the theoretical arguments of improved allocative efficiency and inter-jurisdictional competition under decentralised governance.
The research suggests that further decentralisation, coupled with increased fiscal transfers and capacity-building for local governments, can improve the targeting and efficiency of public service delivery in Cameroon. Policymakers should consider these results when designing reforms to strengthen local governance and public finance management
Navigating the Shift: De-Dollarization, BRICS Strategies, and the Evolving Global Financial Architecture
Full text linkThe global financial system, historically dominated by the US dollar since the 1944 Bretton Woods Agreement, is undergoing a significant transformation as BRICS nations (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) pursue de-dollarization to reduce reliance on the dollar in trade, reserves, and financial systems. Driven by economic vulnerabilities, geopolitical tensions (e.g., sanctions and the Russia-Ukraine conflict), and technological innovations (e.g., cryptocurrencies and blockchain), these efforts aim to mitigate exposure to US monetary policy and dollar weaponization. BRICS strategies include promoting alternative currencies (e.g., China’s Renminbi), establishing parallel financial institutions (e.g., New Development Bank), and leveraging digital payment systems. However, challenges persist, such as the dollar’s entrenched dominance, internal BRICS divergences, and technical barriers. The shift suggests a gradual move toward a multipolar monetary system rather than an abrupt dollar collapse, with implications for global economic governance, financial stability, and geopolitical power dynamics. Case studies of China, Russia, and Pakistan highlight diverse approaches, from bilateral trade agreements to sectoral energy transitions. This research underscores de-dollarization as a complex, multidimensional process integrating economic, political, and technological factors, signaling an evolving but not yet displaced dollar-centric order
Editorial : The December 2025 issue of the International Journal of Economic Performance presents 26 articles focusing on critical global themes
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The December 2025 issue of the International Journal of Economic Performance presents 26 articles focusing on critical global themes
The editorial of this issue was written by Saïd SOUAM, Professor of Economics,
Paris Nanterre University (EconomiX) (France) . Associate Editor of the journal
ARIMA Analysis of Nepalese Foreign Labor Employment
Full text linkThis research seeks to evaluate the employment of foreign workers in Nepal today and their contribution to the economy. Using the ARIMA forecasting model, the research foresees patterns of Nepalese foreign labor migration in the future. The findings show the labor migration statistics from 1995 to projections after 2030, showing a trend of continuous increase with a significant rise projected to happen post-2020. In the study, both AR and MR remain unchanged, as desired for successful prediction. The analysis identifies that the expected growth in foreign labor migration will have major consequences for Nepal's society, economy, and policy-making process, which will in turn affect employment trends, remittance inflow, and infrastructure needs
The Impact of Entrepreneurial Marketing on MSMEs’ Performance in Nigeria
Full text linkThere is considerable debate on the entrepreneurial marketing construct's nature, its dimensionality, interdependence, and the characteristics of its dimensions. Entrepreneurial marketing behaviour can affect the success and performance of micro, small and medium-scale enterprises (MSMEs). The study investigates the influence of entrepreneurial marketing on the performance of MSMEs in Nigeria. The study used descriptive statistics of frequency counts, based on sample selection of 132 respondents to generate data. The Pearson Product Moment Coefficient was used to test the hypotheses, and the P-value was used to arrive at a rejection or acceptance decision. Factors studied include proactiveness, being opportunity focused, being customer centric, value creation and innovation. The results obtained from the analysis showed that there exists a positive relationship between all the independent variables studied (opportunity focused, being customer centric, value creation and innovation) and dependent variables (MSMEs performance). The researcher recommended that MSMEs owners and managers should be more proactive with business activities. MSMEs owners and managers should constantly search for opportunities in the environment, to align and even be ahead of the ever-changing business environment. MSME Owners and managers should constantly be more customer centric, MSMEs owners and managers should be more value oriented, constantly ensuring that their products and services delivers gains or solve important problems for the customers
Corporate Carbon Transparency in the EU: The Transformative Role of IFRS Sustainability Standards in Auditing and Reporting (2025)
Full text link This study investigates the transformative impact of IFRS Sustainability Disclosure Standards (S1/S2) on corporate carbon transparency within the European Union's evolving regulatory framework. Against the backdrop of the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD), we analyze the effectiveness of these standards in addressing critical gaps in carbon disclosure assurance, particularly for Scope 3 emissions. Employing a mixed-methods approach, we combine quantitative analysis of 50 EU firms' sustainability reports (2024-2025) with qualitative insights from 22 key stakeholders, including auditors, policymakers, and corporate leaders. Our findings reveal significant sectoral disparities in compliance, with only 28% of firms achieving full Scope 3 reporting and high-emission sectors underreporting by 25% (p < 0.1). The research demonstrates the crucial role of audit quality, as Big 4-audited reports showed 38% higher reliability (p < 0.01), despite 35% of auditors lacking adequate IFRS S2 expertise. Notably, our analysis shows CSRD's policy bundling approach (combining reporting mandates with assurance requirements) proved 2.6 times more effective than standalone carbon pricing measures (β = 0.47 vs. 0.18). These results underscore the need for sector-specific materiality thresholds, enhanced auditor training, and greater global harmonization of sustainability standards to support the EU's transition to net-zero emissions by 2050. The study contributes to ongoing debates about environmental accountability while offering practical insights for policymakers, corporations, and standard-setters navigating the complexities of carbon transparency
Africa’s Economic Downturn and Household Well-being: A systematic review
Full text linkEconomic disruptions by COVID-19 pandemic and trade tariffs retaliations cause adverse effects like high inflation. This paper explores Africa’s economic downturn and household well-being using a systematic literature review as a research methodology. findings indicate a decline in output and food insecurity as some of the negative economic downturn effects on household well-being while positive effects are smaller family sizes experience less food insecurities, and cultural expenditure inequalities. This paper explores Africa’s economic downturn and household well-being using the Systematic Literature Review , the selected database for the SLR are African Journals Online (AJOL), Google Scholar and Scopus. A total of 34 journal articles were found relevant to address the main objective of this paper.there are both negative and positive economic downturn effects on household well-being in Africa. Decline in output and food insecurity are some of the negative economic downturns effect on household well-being while the positive economic downturn effects are smaller family sizes experience less food insecurities, and decline in cultural expenditure inequalities, Limits on systematic literature review and therefore, future studies can explore mixed methods approach, The government and non-government interventions to focus on improving the well-being of households, This study contributes knowledge to the existing literature on the subject, ultimately informing policy interventions and enhancing the understanding of the socio-economic dynamics during periods of economic instability
Charting the Scientometric Evolution: Emerging Trends in Artificial Intelligence and Marketing Research
Full text linkThis study presents a scientometric analysis of the evolving integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in marketing research, addressing a gap in quantitative assessments of this rapidly advancing field. Drawing on data from Scopus (1984–Q1 2024) and utilizing advanced bibliometric techniques in R Studio, the research maps publication trends, author influence, institutional and geographic distributions, and thematic developments. The analysis covers 565 English-language, peer-reviewed articles, revealing a marked acceleration in publication volume since 2015, with a peak of 136 articles in 2023. The United States leads in research output and international collaboration, followed by the United Kingdom, China, and India. The Journal of Business Research emerges as the predominant outlet, while key contributors such asDWIVEDI YK, KIETZMANN J, and KAR AK shape the field’s discourse. Dominant themes include “artificial intelligence,” “machine learning,” “decision-making,” and “marketing strategies.” Network analyses highlight AI’s central role in connecting diverse marketing subfields and fostering interdisciplinary inquiry. The findings underscore AI’s transition from a peripheral topic to a core driver of marketing scholarship, with significant implications for future research directions and strategic practice. This study provides a comprehensive mapping of the field’s scientometric evolution, identifying leading voices, institutions, and emerging trends
Industrial Clusters and Their Role in Enhancing the Strategy of Developing Small and Medium Enterprises to Encourage Exports: A Study of the Italian and German Experience During 2024
Full text link This research examines the pivotal role of industrial clusters in enhancing the export strategies of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) within the Italian and German contexts in 2024. The study addresses a critical gap in understanding how industrial clusters specifically influence the strategic development and international competitiveness of SMEs, focusing on the mechanisms through which clustering facilitates innovation, resource sharing, and collaborative networks. Employing a mixed-methods approach, the research integrates qualitative insights from stakeholder interviews and case studies with quantitative analysis of export statistics and performance metrics. Key findings reveal that participation in industrial clusters significantly boosts SMEs’ export activities—with 75% of cluster-engaged SMEs reporting increased export volumes—through improved access to specialized knowledge, supply chain efficiencies, and collective marketing efforts. Both Italian and German clusters demonstrate pronounced benefits, though with distinct operational emphases: Italian clusters leverage traditional craftsmanship and niche markets, while German clusters prioritize high-tech advancements and operational efficiency. The study underscores the importance of tailored policy frameworks and government support in fostering cluster development, highlighting the need for continued investment in training, digital transformation, and institutional partnerships. The results provide actionable insights for policymakers and industry stakeholders to strengthen SME export capabilities and regional economic resilience in an increasingly competitive global landscape