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Status and effects of insect pests on the cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) in southern and central zones, Tanzania
Get PDFA Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of
Masters in Life Sciences of the Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and
TechnologyThis study was conducted from February to March and July to August 2019 in twenty-four
(24) cashew fields located in the southern and central zones of Tanzania. In each zone, three
districts were selected based on cashew production reports, and in each district, four farms
were selected. In each farm, ten fully-grown cashew nut trees were randomly selected and
assessed for infestation by sucking insect pests. The insect pests were assessed within
quadrants of one-meter length placed at the north and south of the canopy of the cashew tree.
The total number of insect pests, susceptible shoots and nuts, both clean and damaged were
recorded. Insect samples were collected and identified at the Tropical Pesticides Research
Institute, Arusha Tanzania. Twenty-seven (27) key informant farmers were interviewed using
questionnaires and farmers group discussions in both zones. The study revealed a number of
both known and first recorded insect pest’s attacks that cashew nut. The commonly known
insect pests identified include Helopeltis sp, Pseudotheraptus wayi, Selenothrips rubrocinctus
and Mecocorynus loripes, and newly recorded were Miphetophora sp., Plaesiorrhira sp.,
Diplognatha gagates, Systates sp, and Aphis sp. The incidence and diversity of these cashew
sucking insect pests differed in terms of abundance and distribution within cashew fields.
Most abundant insect pests were Helopeltis sp. with incidences of 46.7%. Further research is
required in studying biology, ecology population dynamics and abundance of first reported
and identified insect pests to determine specific periods for intervention and develop methods
(species-specific) for effective pest management in Tanzania
Two-Factor Authentication Scheme for Mobile Money: A Review of Threat Models and Countermeasures
Get PDFThis research article published by MDPI, 2020The proliferation of digital financial innovations like mobile money has led to the rise
in mobile subscriptions and transactions. It has also increased the security challenges associated
with the current two-factor authentication (2FA) scheme for mobile money due to the high demand.
This review paper aims to determine the threat models in the 2FA scheme for mobile money. It also
intends to identify the countermeasures to overcome the threat models. A comprehensive literature
search was conducted from the Google Scholar and other leading scientific databases such as IEEE
Xplore, MDPI, Emerald Insight, Hindawi, ACM, Elsevier, Springer, and Specific and International
Journals, where 97 papers were reviewed that focused on the topic. Descriptive research papers and
studies related to the theme were selected. Three reviewers extracted information independently on
authentication, mobile money system architecture, mobile money access, the authentication scheme
for mobile money, various attacks on the mobile money system (MMS), threat models in the 2FA
scheme for mobile money, and countermeasures. Through literature analysis, it was found that
the threat models in the 2FA scheme for mobile money were categorised into five, namely, attacks
against privacy, attacks against authentication, attacks against confidentiality, attacks against integrity,
and attacks against availability. The countermeasures include use of cryptographic functions (e.g.,
asymmetric encryption function, symmetric encryption function, and hash function) and personal
identification (e.g., number-based and biometric-based countermeasures). This review study reveals
that the current 2FA scheme for mobile money has security gaps that need to be addressed since it only
uses a personal identification number (PIN) and a subscriber identity module (SIM) to authenticate
users, which are susceptible to attacks. This work, therefore, will help mobile money service providers
(MMSPs), decision-makers, and governments that wish to improve their current 2FA scheme for
mobile money
Potential predators and parasitoids for conservation biological control in smallholder bean farming tropical ecosystem
Get PDFA Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor
of Philosophy in Life Sciences of the Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and
TechnologyConservation biological control (CBC) is an attempt to protect the already existing natural
enemies (predators, parasitoids or pathogens) of insect pests within the agricultural systems
by manipulating the environment and farming practices to provide the required resources for
their survival. This study assessed the major arthropod predators and parasitoids of common
bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) insect pests in smallholder bean farming tropical ecosystem and
their contribution in pest management, in three elevation zones during 2016 and 2017. The
farmers’ knowledge about natural enemies, insect pest and pesticide use was investigated
followed by field surveys and experiments to determine the contribution of major predators
and parasitoids to pest management in smallholder bean fields. The importance of field
margin vegetation to the population of predators and parasitoids was also examined. The
study identified a severe lack of knowledge about natural enemies among the smallholder
farmers. However, the field survey revealed the existence of a rich community of natural
enemies, where a total of 5003 natural enemies were identified out of 13 961 insects
collected. The natural enemy abundance differed along the elevation gradient where the high
zone was leading with 50.3%, while mid and low zones had 31.7% and 18% respectively.
Majority of the natural enemies were sampled along the margin vegetation compared with the
bean fields for low (61.1% in margin vs 38.9% in field) and mid (52.1% in margin vs 47.9%
in field) zones, but in the high zone they were more abundant within the bean fields (44.6%
in margin vs 55.4% field). A dye experiment to monitor their movement revealed high levels
of spatial flux (71%) between the two locations. Aphids (Aphis fabae) mortality rates
measured by predation and parasitism of sentinel aphids did not significantly differ between
the field edges and field centre in all the three elevation zones, indicating the centre of the
fields still receive comparable pest control service as the field edge. Parasitoid wasps were
the most abundant natural enemy while A. fabae were the most damaging insect pests in the
smallholder bean fields. Molecular identification of A. fabae parasitoids revealed 85%
primary parasitoids (Aphidius colemani) and two species of secondary parasitoids
(Pachyneuron sp., 7% and Charipinae sp., 1%) which may have significant effects in
biological pest control. The study revealed the potential predators and parasitoids important
for pest control within the smallholder bean fields which can be enhanced through CBC
Adherence to Iron-Folic Acid Supplementation and Associated Factors among Pregnant Women in Kasulu Communities in North-Western Tanzania
Get PDFThis research article published by Hindawi, 2020Introduction. Pregnant women are at a high risk of anaemia, with iron-folate deficiency being the most common cause of anaemia
among pregnant women. Despite the well-known importance of iron and folic acid supplementation (IFAS) during pregnancy,
adherence to these supplements is relatively low and associated factors were not well identified in the study area. This study is
aimed at investigating adherence to IFAS and associated factors among pregnant women in Kasulu district, north-western
Tanzania. Methods. A health facility cross-sectional survey with a mixed-method approach was conducted in Kasulu district
from March to April 2019. A structured questionnaire was given to 320 women with children aged 0-6 months to assess factors
associated with adherence to IFAS among pregnant women. Data were entered into SPSS version 22.0 for analysis. Binary
logistic regression was further employed to determine the factors associated with adherence to IFAS. Focus group discussions
were done with 19 pregnant women and 15 mothers of children aged 0-6 months to obtain more clarifications on the factors
associated with adherence to IFAS. Furthermore, in-depth interviews were done with six health care providers to explore their
perceptions of IFAS. Results. Out of the 320 respondents of the survey, 20.3% (n = 65) adhered to IFAS. Factors associated with
adherence to IFAS among pregnant women included time to start ANC (AOR = 3:72, 95% CI: 1.42, 9.79), knowledge of
anaemia (AOR = 3:84, 95% CI: 1.335, 10.66), counseling on the importance of the iron-folic acid (AOR = 3:86, 95% CI: 1.42,
10.50), IFAS given during clinical visit (AOR = 15:72, 95% CI: 5.34, 46.31), number of meals consumed (AOR = 3:44, 95% CI:
1.28, 9.21), number of children (AOR = 3:462, 95% CI: 1.035, 11.58), and distance to health facility (AOR = 0:34, 95% CI: 0.131,
0.886). Qualitative findings revealed that delayed first ANC visit, lack of remainder for pregnant women to take IFAS, low
awareness about the negative effects of anaemia, low of knowledge of IFAS and management of side effects, negative beliefs
about the use of IFAS, and follow-up mechanism were major reasons for poor adherence. Conclusion. Adherence to iron-folic
acid supplementation during pregnancy was low. Strengthening systems for creating reminding mechanism, raising community
awareness through educational programs to pregnant women and health providers could improve adherence to IFAS
Bio-efficacy evaluation of long-lasting insecticidal nets after five years of storage: implications for malaria control programmes
Get PDFA Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science in Public Health Research of the Nelson Mandela African Institution of
Science and TechnologyLong Lasting Insecticidal Nets (LLINs) are the most sustainable and effective malaria control tool
currently available. Global targets are for ≥80% of the population living in malaria endemic areas
to have access to and use a LLIN. However, current access to LLINs in endemic areas is 56% due
to system inefficiencies and budget limitations. Thus, cost-effective approaches to maximize
access of effective LLINs in endemic areas are required. This study evaluated whether LLINs that
had been stored for more than five years under manufacturer recommended conditions may be
optimally effective against Anopheles mosquitoes, to inform malaria control programs and
governments on the periods over which LLINs may be stored between distributions, in an effort
to maximise use of available LLINs. Standard World Health Organization (WHO) bioassays (cone
and tunnel tests) were used to evaluate the bio-efficacy and wash resistance of Olyset
®
and
DawaPlus
®
2.0
(rebranded Tsara
®
Soft) LLINs after five years of storage at 25
C - 33.4C and
40%-100% relative humidity. In addition, a small scale Ifakara Ambient Chamber test (I-ACT)
was conducted to compare bio-efficacy of one long stored LLIN to one new LLIN of the same
brand, unwashed and washed. Long-lasting insecticidal nets were evaluated using laboratory
reared fully susceptible Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto (s.s) (Ifakara str
ain) and pyrethroid
resistant Anopheles arabiensis (Kingani strain). After five years of storage, both unwashed and
washed Olyset
®
and DawaPlus
®
2.0
LLINs passed WHO efficacy criteria on Knockdown (KD60)
≥95%, 24-h
r mortality ≥ 80% and ≥90% blood-feeding inhibition as per conducted WHO
bioassays against susceptible An. gambiae s.s. The DawaPlus
®
2.0 LLINs also passed combined
WHO bio-assay criteria against resistant An. arabiensis. Confirmatory I-ACT test using whole
nets demonstrated that long stored LLINs showed similar efficacy to new LLINs on both feeding
inhibition and mortality endpoints against susceptible and resistant strains. Therefore, even after
long storage of around 5 years, both Olyset
®
and DawaPlus
®
2.0 remain efficacious against
susceptible Anopheles mosquitoes at optimal storage range of 25
C - 33.4C and 40%-100%
relative humidity measured by standard WHO methods. DawaPlus
®
2.0 remained efficacious
against pyrethroid-resistant strain
Association of Chicken Mx1 Polymorphisms with Susceptibility in Chicken Embryos Challenged with Virulent Newcastle Disease Virus
Get PDFThis research article published by Science Alert, 2020Background and Objective: Genetic selection of chicken genotypes that are less susceptible to Newcastle disease virus (NDV) is a promising option. The present study aimed to investigate polymorphism of chicken Mx1 gene G2032A SNP in different chicken breeds in Tanzania and association with chicken embryos susceptibility to virulent NDV. Materials and Methods: A total of 355 (87 Sasso, 129 Kuroiler and 139 local) 16 days old chicken embryos were infected with 0.1 mL minimum lethal dose (103/0.1 mL) of virulent NDV suspension. The time of death was recorded and selective genotyping was deployed where chicken embryos from high (15%) and less (15%) susceptible cohorts were genotyped by PCR-length polymorphism. Two forward and a reverse primers were used to generate 2 different sizes of PCR product of A and G alleles of chicken Mx1 gene G2032A SNP. Results: As expected chicken embryos survival was highly variable within a breed. The frequency of allele A was higher than allele G in chicken breeds. Furthermore, using Pearson’s X2 test of independence, it was demonstrated that chicken Mx1 gene G2032A genotypes (AA, AG and GG) were associated (p<0.05) with chicken embryos susceptibility to virulent NDV infection. The frequency of genotype AA was higher in less susceptible chicken embryos, whereas, frequency of genotype GG and AG was higher in high susceptible chicken embryos. Conclusion: Results from the present study provide valuable information on the potential role of Mx1 gene polymorphism for selection of chickens that are resistant to virulent NDV infection
Energy efficient wireless sensor network for monitoring temperature and relative humidity in forest
Get PDFA Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Information and Communication Science and Engineering of
the Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and TechnologyMonitoring the forest‟s weather has been essential to living things over the years. Currently,
there is a shortage of information on real-time temporal and spatial environmental conditions
of the forest that drive forest health condition. This work focuses on the sensing of humidity
and temperature as weather data from the forest. Unlike the traditional systems used to collect
weather information, the use of wireless sensor network (WSN) gives real-time data capture
from every point of the forest. However, the WSN faces the number of challenges including
low bandwidth, low power, and short battery lifespan. Reducing the network delay and
improving the network lifetime are always big issues in the domain of WSN. To resolve these
downsides, this work proposes an Energy Efficient Scheduling using Deep Reinforcement
Learning (DRL) ( S-DRL) algorithm in WSN. S-DRL contributes three phases to
prolong network lifetime and to reduce network delay that is: Clustering phase, Duty-Cycling
phase and Routing phase. S-DRL starts with the clustering phase where it reduces the
energy consumption incurred during data aggregation. It is achieved through Zone based
Clustering (ZbC) scheme. In ZbC scheme, hybrid Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and
Affinity Propagation (AP) algorithms are utilized. Duty cycling is adopted in the second
phase by executing DRL algorithm. Here, the sensor node autonomously decides its sleep or
wakeup time to transmit sensed data to the head node. From which, S-DRL reduces the
energy consumption of individual sensor nodes effectually. The transmission delay is
mitigated in third (routing) phase using Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) and FireFly
Algorithm (FFA). S-DRL is modeled in the Network Simulator 3.26 (NS3) simulator. The
results conquered are valuable in provisions of upcoming metrics including network lifetime,
energy consumption, throughput and delay. From this evaluation, it is proved that E2S-DRL
reduces energy consumption, delay up to 40% and enhances throughput and network lifetime
up to 35% compared to the existing Time Division Multiple Access (cTDMA), Distributed
Random Allocation (DRA) and improved Artificial bee colony (iABC) methods. The weather
data will be stored in the database for further action. This study was conducted in the
biodiversity-rich Usambara forest reserve in Tanzania. Timely collected environmental data
will help other researchers to predict wildfire since the temperature rise can cause fire
outbreak. Finally, to evaluate the performance of the proposed system using the following
metrics namely network lifetime, energy consumption, throughput and delay
Classification and characterisation of livestock production systems in northern Tanzania.
Get PDFThis research article published by PLOS ONE, 2020Livestock keepers in sub-Saharan Africa face a range of pressures, including climate change, land loss, restrictive policies, and population increase. Widespread adaptation in response can lead to the emergence of new, non-traditional typologies of livestock production. We sought to characterise livestock production systems in two administrative regions in northern Tanzania, an area undergoing rapid social, economic, and environmental change. Questionnaire and spatial data were collected from 404 livestock-keeping households in 21 villages in Arusha and Manyara Regions in 2016. Multiple factor analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis were used to classify households into livestock production systems based on household-level characteristics. Adversity-based indicators of vulnerability, including reports of hunger, illness, and livestock, land and crop losses were compared between production systems. Three distinct clusters emerged through this process. The ethnic, environmental and livestock management characteristics of households in each cluster broadly mapped onto traditional definitions of 'pastoral', 'agro-pastoral' and 'smallholder' livestock production in the study area, suggesting that this quantitative classification system is complementary to more qualitative classification methods. Our approach allowed us to demonstrate a diversity in typologies of livestock production at small spatial scales, with almost half of study villages comprising more than one production system. We also found indicators of change within livestock production systems, most notably the adoption of crop agriculture in the majority of pastoral households. System-level heterogeneities in vulnerability were evident, with agro-pastoral households most likely to report hunger and pastoral households most likely to report illness in people and livestock, and livestock losses. We demonstrate that livestock production systems can provide context for assessing household vulnerability in northern Tanzania. Policy initiatives to improve household and community well-being should recognise the continuing diversity of traditional livestock production systems in northern Tanzania, including the diversity that can exist at small spatial scales
Biomonitoring of pesticides exposure and the fate of pesticides use among smallholder vegetable producers in Tanzania
Get PDFA Thesis Submitted in Fulfillment of Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of
Philosophy in Life Sciences of the Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and
TechnologyThis study assessed drivers of increased and changing patterns of pesticide use, levels of
Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition, associated health effects and co-exposure risks of
pesticide residues and bacterial contaminants in fresh vegetables. A total of 613 vegetable
samples were collected from Arusha, Kilimanjaro, Manyara, Dar es Salaam, Morogoro and
Iringa, regions. Binary probit models were used to analyze factors fostering increased
pesticide use, determinants of pesticide exposure and risks of co-exposure. Significant results
were accepted at p < 0.05. Results revealed that most farmers (88.9%) were unaware of
pesticide safety practices. Compared with previous studies, there was increased trend in
pesticide use (58.4%), which was accompanied by changing pesticide formulations. The
number of crops grown (p = 0.002), pesticide mixing (p = 0.012) and region (p = 0.001)
contributed positively to likelihood for increased pesticide use. Smallholder farmers were
found to be occupationally exposed to pesticides, where exposed farmers had significantly
lower AChE levels. The number of exposure symptoms (14.10±7.70) was higher in exposed
than unexposed farmers. Self-reported symptoms were also confirmed to correlate with lower
AChE and the use of personal protective equipment did not significantly reduce exposure.
Women, younger and older farmers, underweight, overweight, and obese farmers were at
increased risk of pesticide exposure. Moreover, locally produced fresh vegetables were
highly contaminated with pesticide residues, 47.5% had detectable levels of pesticide
residues, 74.2% of which recorded average residue levels above Codex Maximum Residue
Levels (MRL) standards. Multiple pesticide residues were also detected, these included
organophosphates (95.2%), organochlorines (24.0%), pyrethroids (17.3%) and carbamates
(9.2%), all constituting the main detected pesticide residues. Consequently, bacterial
contamination of fresh vegetables was also evident, with prevalence of bacterial
contamination being high (63.2%). Enterobacter (55.6%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (32.4%),
E. coli (28.2%), Citrobacter (26.8%), Klebsiella oxytoca (14.8%) and Salmonella (7.7%)
were isolated. 46.4% of tested samples were positive for both pesticide residues and bacterial
contaminants. Vegetables from farms (60.7%) contained more bacterial contaminants while
vegetables with pesticide residues were about twice more likely to be contaminated with
bacteria (OR: 2.231; 95% CI: 0.501, 8.802). Findings from this study also showed extensive
use of pesticides, bacterial contamination and exposure among small holder farmers. The
observed exposure risks pose short and long-term effects on health of both farmers and
general population. The contamination levels of pesticide residues and bacterial contaminants
could also be perceived as a serious health problem, as most fresh and vegetables recorded
values of pesticide residues far above the Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) with pathogenic
bacteria isolated in higher proportions. Maximum Residue Limits were higher in most
vegetables that were consumed raw or semi-cooked. There is therefore an urgent need to
develop pesticide monitoring and surveillance systems at farmers’ level by educating farmers
and promoting the use of greener pesticides to mitigate the health effects of pesticides and
bacterial contaminants
Towards sustainable management of inland waters in Tanzania assessing the ecological integrity of river ecosystems in the upper Pangani river basin (Tanzania)
Get PDFDissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Science (PhD): Biology) December 2020River ecosystems encompass river channels and its floodplains and form a diverse mosaic of habitats upon which countless species of animals and plants depend for survival. They provide a plethora of services for humans including a source of clean water for domestic and industrial uses, a source of food, a means of waste disposal, transportation, power production, and sites for the pursuit of leisure activities. Yet, they belong to the most threatened ecosystems on earth. Major threats to river ecosystems include habitat degradation, water pollution, flow modification, overexploitation, and invasion by exotic species. This is especially true for (sub) tropical developing countries where intensification of land-use for agriculture and poor disposal of untreated waste have markedly degraded rivers and associated floodplain ecosystems. Nevertheless, a proper understanding of ecosystem functioning and biological diversity is lacking. In this Ph.D., we contribute to bridging this knowledge gap. We investigate different factors that explain biodiversity and ecosystem quality in (afro) tropical river systems and associated temporary pool ecosystems in northeastern-Tanzania by using macroinvertebrates as biological indicators and collecting environmental and biological data at various spatial-temporal scales. Firstly, we assessed how seasonality (i.e., wet and dry seasons) influences macroinvertebrate community structure and water quality conditions (Chapters 1 and 2). An extensive repeated-sampling survey was conducted to measure water quality, macroinvertebrates, and other presumed important environmental variables in the two sub-catchments of the Upper Pangani River Basin (UPRB). We found evidence that water quality conditions and macroinvertebrate assemblages differ between seasons and that these differences are associated with high flow velocity, and runoff carrying sediment and nutrient loads from the catchment area to the river systems during the rainy season. Moreover, our results revealed that chlorophyll-a, oxygen and phosphorous (dry season), nitrogen and turbidity (wet season), and substrate composition and agricultural land-use (both seasons) are important determinants for the variation in macroinvertebrates assemblages between sites. We also attempted to identify indicator taxa linked to specific water quality conditions and found that families Hydropsychidae (Trichoptera), Potamonautidae (Decapoda), Baetidae (Ephemeroptera), and Heptageniidae (Ephemeroptera) showed to be indicator taxa of good water quality conditions, while Hirudinea (Annelida) and Chironomidae (Diptera) appeared to be indicator taxa of poor water quality conditions (Chapter 1). Secondly, we focused on the impact of land-use at different spatial scales on river quality (Chapters 1 and 2). To quantify this we used three different spatial methods of land-use estimation; (i) land-use of the entire watershed area above the monitoring site, (ii) a circular buffer around a monitoring site, and (iii) a circular buffer immediately upstream of a monitoring site, with circular buffers varying from 100m to 2km. The land-use percentage compositions in the dry and wet seasons were quantified using Landsat-8 satellite images with a maximum mapping resolution of 30m. We found that physico-chemical water quality and macroinvertebrate assemblages responded differently to land-uses at different scales in both dry and wet seasons. Nevertheless, the relationships were not always straightforward and clearly scale-dependent, suggesting that the spatial estimate used, and the spatial scale considered can strongly confound the conclusions (Chapter 2). Land-use of the entire watershed area upstream of the monitoring site better explained variation in physico-chemical water quality and macroinvertebrate indices whereas macroinvertebrate abundances showed strong links with more local land-use patterns within 100m and 2km radii. In Chapter 3, we added the main constraint that is not always included in studies of river systems i.e., connectivity and spatial autocorrelation among sites. For this, we use a spatially explicit analysis framework (spatial stream network (SSN) models) to test to what extent dendritic stream network structure affects spatial patterns of benthic macroinvertebrates and water chemistry at the catchment scale. We showed that spatial patterns and spatial autocorrelation exist in stream water chemistry and macroinvertebrate indices at both fine- and broad- spatial scale comprising both flow-connected and flow-unconnected spatial relationships. And that SSN models managed to make good predictions of water chemistry concentrations and macroinvertebrate indices at unsampled sites with estimates of uncertainty. The results highlight the value of SSN models and stress the need to specify spatial dependencies representing the dendritic network structure of river ecosystems. Finally, we assessed to what extent the seasonal connectivity of the river with temporary wetlands in the surrounding landscape is a crucial determinant of aquatic communities and environmental conditions in the floodplain wetlands. This was achieved by comparing environmental conditions and diversity and composition of macroinvertebrate communities from river connected pools with endorheic pools (Chapter 4). Macroinvertebrate communities from the two habitats were clearly differentiated and spatial taxon turnover was the main determinant of variation in community composition among pools. Hydrological connectivity facilitated the migration of fish to the river connected pools which structured the invertebrate community assemblages through selective predation, particularly of large prey such as large branchiopod crustaceans. Based on our dataset we identified indicator taxa for the different habitat types and found no specific fauna unique to river connected pools. Overall, our results suggest monitoring of river systems in wet and dry seasons given the fact that different selective filters limit invertebrate assemblages in both seasons. We recommend the creation of intact riparian buffer zones of at least 60 m from each side of the riverbank to help alleviate some of the observed negative effects of the land-use activities on the river systems. In addition, conservation and management schemes of temporary pools should focus on both river connected and endorheic pools to support high regional diversity. More importantly, SSN models should be used to support river basin management in the region in a rapid and cost-effective way