Institutional Repository of Institute for the History of Natural Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences(IHNS OpenIR,中国科学院自然科学史研究所机构知识库)
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中国技术:从发明到模仿,再走向创新
No full text古代中国是一个发明的国度。中国人首先栽培水稻和茶树等作物,发明了丝绸、瓷器和机械时钟等。中国技术在11世纪前后基本上满足了古代农业社会的需求。19世纪60年代,中国开始技术"换道"发展,即引进和模仿西方技术,兴办近代工业。20世纪30年代前建立了工程科学。20世纪50年代,构建了比较完整的科研体系、工业体系和教育体系。在改革开放时期,通过引进技术来实现产业升级,并努力创新产品。20世纪90年代,将创新视为技术和经济发展的关键。2012年11月,党的十八大决定实施创新驱动发展战略。面对各种挑战,中国应研判本国科技处于什么发展阶段,做好科技布局和改革,有效地增强创新能力
Coal-fuelled crucible lead-silver smelting in 12th-13th century China: A technological innovation in the age of deforestation
No full textSilver was an important metal in the economy of imperial China. However, until now, research on silver production technology in its social-economic and environmental contexts has been limited. Here we present a unique silver-lead production site in Hebei province, north China, dated between the 12th and 13th century AD, yielding vast numbers of slag-filled tubular crucibles and coal-ash slag chunks. Microstructural and chemical analysis reveals the crucibles were manufactured from refractory clays and that the slag inside contains lead silver particles, un-reacted ore and numerous fragments of metallic iron. These finds indicate that the crucibles were used for smelting argentiferous sulphidic lead ores, which were reduced to metal by desulphurization using metallic iron. Mineral coal was employed to fuel this process from outside the crucibles. The use of mineral coal and externally-fired crucibles for smelting was an important technological innovation, but not one that could be adopted by all industries. We argue that it was most likely associated with rampant deforestation and the fuel crisis historically documented for the early second millennium in northern China. Contrary to received wisdom, this study demonstrates that the early adoption of coal was not as widespread as typically assumed, as it required a range of technological innovations. Crucible smelting, as one of the solutions, was embraced by lead-silver smelters, while most iron smelters in this period still persisted with the charcoal-fired furnace smelting tradition
世界科技中心转移的钻石模型——基于经济繁荣、思想解放、教育兴盛、政府支持、科技革命的历史分析与前瞻
No full text近现代以来,意大利—英国—法国—德国—美国相继成为世界科学中心。经济繁荣、思想解放、教育兴盛、政府有力支持等社会因素以及科学成果涌现时机因素共同导致了世界科学中心的形成、演进与更替,五要素钻石模型可给予有效分析。科学与技术关系日益紧密,未来世界科技中心将不只一个,而是呈现出多中心并进、加速向亚太地区转移的趋势,并具有网络化、全球化等新特点。新一轮科技革命与产业变革加速演进,全球科技创新进入前所未有的密集活跃期,为我国成为世界科技中心提供了难得的“机会窗口”,当务之急是解放思想,完善人才政策,营造创新友好的环境,加快世界教育中心建设,加大政府支持力度,破解发展面临的难题,抢占前沿研究与颠覆性技术创新的先机,实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦,为世界和平发展和永续繁荣作出更大贡献
北宋初年天文机构中的成员构成
No full text北宋初年,官方天文机构面临'畴人子弟分散'的严峻境况。为组建新政权的天文伎术官班子,朝廷采取了任用前朝官员和从民间征辟新人等方式大量吸纳天文人才。然而来自晚唐五代的畴人世家趋于没落,所存天文官员已是凤毛麟角,对宋初天文学发展的贡献也十分有限。在这种情况下,朝廷从民间大量征募人才,并任用有专业才能的官员充入天文机构。这些人员存在水平参差不齐的情况,但也一定程度上缓解了天文机构人才的紧缺。另一方面,依靠对民间天文人才的吸收,北宋初年的天文机构能够吸收整理保存于民间的晚唐天文学知识,为宋代天文学的发展奠定了基础。对这段历史进行系统梳理,将有助于重新审视天文禁令下民间天文学与官方天文机构之间的关系
The Initial Development of Fiber Communication in the Bell Labs
No full text现代通信技术的发展日新月异，每天海量的信息在地球的各个角落传播，这离不开遍布这些角落的光纤，大到跨洋光纤光缆，小到入户连接各个终端的一根根光纤，真正在地球上又组成了一个纵横交错的“光之球”。然而如果把1966年高锟提出光纤可应用于通信作为光纤通信“元年”的话，（高锟也因此被尊称为“光纤通信之父”），光纤通信的发展也不过五十多年，而且这项技术还处在不断发展中。贝尔实验室是美国著名的研究机构，几十年来数不清的突破在这里产生，世界上第一条光纤通信系统的搭建与测试也是在贝尔实验室率先完成的。然而贝尔实验室并不是从一开始就主动研发光纤通信，甚至在高锟首次提出这种想法后还有所保留，直到形势明朗后，贝尔实验室才转型到光纤通信。这期间发生了什么，光纤通信的发展经历了什么，贝尔实验室又在做些什么？这是值得探讨的问题。本论文主要基于《贝尔系统技术期刊》、《贝尔系统工程与科学史》等一手文献，以及其他一些光纤发展、贝尔实验室的组织运行等相关的书籍和论文，针对贝尔实验室如何最终转向了光纤通信这样一条主线展开研究。如果说1966年“光纤通信元年”之前光纤相关业务和贝尔实验室主营业务还彼此平行的话，那么之后它们渐行渐近，这其中既有自身的需要，光纤通信的发展需要贝尔实验室这样一个强大的研发机构，贝尔实验室的母公司，美国电话电报公司也需要转向光纤通信来扩大通信传输容量，但这两方面并不是一拍即和，需要外力的推动。光纤通信系统中最关键的两点是作为光源的激光和作为传输介质的光纤，当然作为一个系统整体其他元件也不可或缺，但无疑激光和光纤是最重要的两项。贝尔实验室对激光的研制不遗余力，起到了主动引领作用，因为激光还有别的用途；但对光纤的研制却没有能够做到主动出击，最后还是其他机构率先研制成功可应用于通信的低损耗光纤，贝尔才看清形势，开始投入到光纤通信的各个器件和整个系统的研制之中。本篇论文将在分别梳理贝尔实验室的组织结构与业务发展，光纤的性质与应用两条线的基础上，在它们于1966年开始产生交集后，整理分析贝尔实验室对光纤通信发展的质疑、观望与接受、转型和贡献，与其他研发机构的既竞争又合作的关系。整理分析光纤通信系统中作为光源的激光、作为传输介质的低损耗光纤、以及其他器件研发和系统集成的过程。主要从技术因素，也从经济和社会因素分析和讨论，当时世界上最大的通信公司的研发机构，是如何从其他业态转向光纤传输，并最终实现商业化，从而得以大幅提高通信传输容量的
The History of Artificial Intelligence in China and Its Ethical Disputes
No full text从1956年诞生至今，人工智能已经对人类社会的各个方面产生了深远的影响。中国的人工智能研究开始于二十世纪七十年代。经过四十多年的发展，在自动推理、知识工程、神经网络、机器学习、自然语言处理等多个领域都取得了突出成果。但目前科技史学界对中国人工智能史的研究还比较薄弱，缺乏系统深入的梳理和分析。本研究希望填补这项空白并基于中国人工智能发展史对不同阶段的人工智能伦理争议进行分析。本文将中国人工智能的发展划分为四个阶段，分别是酝酿阶段、起步阶段、成长阶段、兴起阶段。并对不同阶段对人工智能的伦理争议进行了梳理。本文共分为七章。第一章为绪论；第二章为中国人工智能的酝酿阶段，时间为1972年至1981年，标志为1972年开始开展人工智能的相关研究；第三章为中国人工智能的起步阶段，时间为1981年至2000年，标志为1981中国人工智能学会成立；第四章为中国人工智能的成长阶段，时间为2000年至2011年，标志为2000年吴文俊获得国家最高科学技术奖；第五章为中国人工智能的兴起阶段，时间为2011年至今，标志为2011年开始颁发吴文俊人工智能科学技术奖；第六章为中国人工智能的伦理争议，梳理和分析了中国人工智能不同发展阶段的伦理争议；第七章为结论
A Historical Review of China-US Cooperation in Space: Launching Commercial Satellites and Technology Transfer, 1978-2000
No full textSpace collaboration has become quite common in recent years, thanks in large part to the high cost of such endeavors. This article reviews a rather early example of space collaboration, the partnership between China and the United States (U.S.) during the period 1978-2000. The collaboration began with general discussions and grew to include the use of Chinese rockets to launch U.S. satellites into orbit. We discuss where this collaboration worked successfully, where it did not, and why it ended. The ultimate collapse of the collaboration highlights the complexity of joint international projects for the factors that caused failure included the Cold War dynamic of geopolitical competition for international military and economic dominance and its continuance into the 1990s in Sino-U.S. relations; the domestic political landscape in both countries, which included bitter Democratic-Republican party rivalries in the U.S. and the top-down centralized decision-making system in China with significant influence by the People's Liberation Army; and the economic interests of U.S. aerospace contractors. But the issue that most directly ended cooperation in space was U.S. concerns about the transfer to China of sensitive satellite and rocket technology. For this history, we draw upon existing English language materials and Chinese language sources that have not been available to English-speaking scholars to illuminate China's involvement in this collaboration. We also describe subsequent Chinese space activities to pursue additional collaboration and offer comments about possible future Sino-U.S. space cooperation, against this backdrop of long-running national security concerns about transfers of knowledge and technology. (C) 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved
A Historical Review of China-US Cooperation in Space: Launching Commercial Satellites and Technology Transfer, 1978-2000
No full textSpace collaboration has become quite common in recent years, thanks in large part to the high cost of such endeavors. This article reviews a rather early example of space collaboration, the partnership between China and the United States (U.S.) during the period 1978-2000. The collaboration began with general discussions and grew to include the use of Chinese rockets to launch U.S. satellites into orbit. We discuss where this collaboration worked successfully, where it did not, and why it ended. The ultimate collapse of the collaboration highlights the complexity of joint international projects for the factors that caused failure included the Cold War dynamic of geopolitical competition for international military and economic dominance and its continuance into the 1990s in Sino-U.S. relations; the domestic political landscape in both countries, which included bitter Democratic-Republican party rivalries in the U.S. and the top-down centralized decision-making system in China with significant influence by the People's Liberation Army; and the economic interests of U.S. aerospace contractors. But the issue that most directly ended cooperation in space was U.S. concerns about the transfer to China of sensitive satellite and rocket technology. For this history, we draw upon existing English language materials and Chinese language sources that have not been available to English-speaking scholars to illuminate China's involvement in this collaboration. We also describe subsequent Chinese space activities to pursue additional collaboration and offer comments about possible future Sino-U.S. space cooperation, against this backdrop of long-running national security concerns about transfers of knowledge and technology. (C) 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved
CAS and Joint Research Battle on Butadiene Rubber of New China（1956-1976）
No full text新中国成立后，百废待兴，全面进行社会主义建设是新中国必须面临的问题。工业和经济建设离不开科学技术的支撑，伴随新中国成立的中国科学院成为新中国早期一个重要的科研主体。在科技力量十分薄弱的背景下，多部门、多单位的联合攻关成为20世纪50-70年代重大项目攻关的主要形式。橡胶属于国家重要战略物资，在国防建设、交通运输和人民生活等方面有着广泛应用。20世纪50-60年代，新中国橡胶产量远不能满足生产建设需求。60年代，中科院兰州化物所和长春应化所分别在顺丁橡胶丁烯氧化脱氢制丁二烯和丁二烯定向聚合两项关键技术上取得突破，随后国家开始组织顺丁橡胶的联合攻关。经过两次联合攻关会战，我国自主实现了顺丁橡胶工业化生产。本文通过中科院办公厅、兰州化物所、长春应化所和锦州石油六厂等单位的档案文献对中科院在顺丁橡胶项目上的研发情况以及参与顺丁橡胶联合攻关的历史进行还原，探讨我国在20世纪60-70年代特殊历史背景下顺丁橡胶联合攻关的决策体系、模式和特点，讨论中科院参与联合攻关的特点。第一章阐述了选题背景及研究意义，梳理前人在中科院历史、顺丁橡胶发展史、科技项目攻关等方面的相关研究进展，指出进行中科院与新中国顺丁橡胶联合攻关研究的必要性。第二章介绍了中科院与新中国早期技术科学发展情况，主要分为中科院早期办院方针与定位和20世纪50-60年代中科院面向技术科学发展的部署两部分。第三章梳理了新中国顺丁橡胶联合攻关的历史，主要分为三个阶段：中科院顺丁橡胶实验室研究及成果推广（1958-1965）、兰州顺丁橡胶联合攻关会战（1966-1969）、顺丁橡胶工业化建设及联合攻关（1970-1976）。第四章以兰州化物所参与顺丁橡胶的情况为例对中科院参与该联合攻关进行微观考察。介绍了兰州化物所的成立背景及研究基础，整理还原兰州化物所参与顺丁橡胶的史实，包括实验室研究的突破、扩大性试验、中间试验联合攻关和工业化生产攻关四个阶段。第五章是全文结语，探讨顺丁橡胶联合攻关的决策体系、模式及特点，讨论中科院参与顺丁橡胶联合攻关的特点