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Meninės reprezentacijos kritika šv. Augustino Išpažinimuose
Get PDFThis article is concerned with the critique of representation in art found in Augustine’s Confessions. The aim of the author is not only to reveal the fundamental influence of Plato and Aristotle on Augustine’s criticism, but to show the unique aspects of Augustine’s thought. The article considers Augustine’s critique of art in the Confessions to be three-fold: the ontological critique, the ethical (psychological) critique of intention and the critique of pagan ethos in art. The article considers the ontological critique as based on the neoplatonic dualism of body and soul as well as the platonic concept of image. Therefore Augustine considers artistic representation to be three-times removed from reality and sees the experience of God as the perfect aesthetical experience. Author states that the ethical critique considers art as a form of idolatry, which projects the innermost desires of the soul (the desire of God) onto the material pleasures of the outer world. Even though Augustine’s thinking is based on the Aristotelian concept of catharsis, the conclusions are entirely different – in Augustine’s opinion the aesthetical experience does not free the audience of its corporal appetites. Quite the contrary, the appetites get more intense. It should also be brought to the attention of the reader, that Augustine holds a certain hostility towards theatre and pagan literature as a pagan social practices. Augustine develops the thought of these Greek philosophers from the Christian point of view and bases his ethical critique of the aesthetic experience along with the critique of aesthetic practices on it. Moreover, he is more open to the concept of art as a fiction than Plato.Straipsnyje nagrinėjama meninės reprezentacijos kritika šv. Augustino Išpažinimuose. Autorius siekia atskleisti Platono ir Aristotelio įtaką Augustino mąstymui apie meninę reprezentaciją ir parodyti Augustino mąstymo savitumą. Straipsnyje skiriami trys Augustino kritikos sluoksniai – ontologinė, etinė (psichologinė) intencijos ir papročių kritika. Teigiama, jog Augustino ontologinės kritikos pamatą sudaro neoplatoniškas kūno-sielos dualizmas ir iš Platono perimama atvaizdo samprata, tad meno kūriniai suvokiami kaip nuo tiesos ir tikrovės nutolę atvaizdai, o aukščiausiu estetiniu išsipildymu laikoma Dievo patirtis. Autoriaus nuomone, Augustino etinė (psichologinė) intencijos kritika apmąsto meną kaip savitą stabmeldystės formą, projektuojančią vidinius sielos poreikius (Dievo troškimą) į išoriškus malonumus. Nors mąstoma aristotelinio katarsio paradigmoje, prieinama prie priešingų Aristoteliui ir artimesnių platoniškai teatro psichologijai išvadų – Augustinas teatro patirtį įvardija ne kaip išlaisvinančią nuo aistrų, o jas skatinančią. Atkreipiamas dėmesys, kad teorinės kritikos fone esama priešiškumo teatrui kaip pagoniškai praktikai. Bandoma įrodyti, jog Augustinas graikų mąstytojų požiūrį papildo krikščioniška perspektyva ir iš jos kylančia etine estetinio patyrimo kritika, atviru požiūriu į meno fiktyvumą bei pagoniškų papročių kritika
Liaudies rašytoja valstiečiams skaitytojams: Žemaitės ankstyvoji recepcija (1895–1915)
Get PDFThis article investigates the rise of the peasantry as new readers and Lithuanian intellectuals’ reactions to this phenomenon as they took the initiative in directing the peasants’ cultivation as readers. These intellectuals were concerned with the development of the peasants and sought to form their reading habits, influence the readers’ choices as to reading material, and so on. This article goes on to analyze how Žemaitė’s status as a peasant writer was established during her early reception, and how the evaluation of her work depended on the imagined addressee. By analyzing the reviews and broader studies of Žemaitė’s published works in the Lithuanian press from 1895 to 1915, this article aims to show that the formation of the common people as a potential and especially important national reading public was an integral part of her canonization process. Yet another important aim of this research is to reveal how the reception of Žemaitė’s works brought ordinary village peasant onto the horizon of modern Lithuanian culture, and how this became the foundation of one of the new literary styles in Lithuania, namely realism. In this way, by canonizing Žemaitė’s works, the life of village folk became not only visible and recognizable to the Lithuanian reading public, but also came to be regarded as a credible topic for realistic prose.Straipsnyje pristatoma ankstyvoji Žemaitės recepcija, nuo pirmojo paminėjimo nelegalioje lietuviškoje spaudoje 1895 m. iki jos pripažinimo viršūnės – 1915 m., kai buvo minimas rašytojos 70 metų jubiliejus. Rekonstruojant šios autorės tapimo tikra rašytoja kelią, dėmesys telkiamas į didžiausią įtaką Žemaitės kūrinių kanonizacijai dariusį kontekstinį reiškinį –valstiečių, kaip naujųjų skaitytojų, auditorijos susiformavimą. Remiantis lietuviška periodika, aiškinamasi, kaip jaunoji inteligentija įsivaizdavo naujuosius skaitytojus, kokius argumentus pasitelkė įtraukdama valstiečius į besikuriantį modernios Lietuvos rašto kultūros lauką. Besikurianti lietuviška kritika, formavusi tautinį kanoną, apibrėžusi jo kriterijus, matoma kaip integrali valstiečių švietimo proceso dalis. Pirmųjų kritikų pabrėžtas Žemaitės kūrinių realistinis pobūdis taip pat buvo susijęs su jos kūrybos adresatu – valstiečiais: geriausiais laikyti tie apsakymai, kuriuose vaizduojama valstiečių gyvenimo tikrovė (gamta, ūkio darbai, tarpusavio santykiai). Už kanono ribų atsidūrė įvardyti kaip netikroviški ir darantys didžiulę žalą naujiesiems skaitytojams Žemaitės kūriniai, kuriuose kritiškai vertinami, išjuokiami kunigai, su Bažnyčia susiję asmenys, religinis kaimo žmonių tamsumas
20-ųjų metų kartos liudijimai privačiojoje raštijoje: Alberto Dilio (1920–2000) atvejis
Get PDFThe article employs the egodocumentary approach to examine how the private writings of Albertas Dilys (1920–2000), political prisoner and Lithuanian scholar of the 1920s generation, records and reflects upon his refusal to compromise under the circumstances of the Soviet occupation. Dilys was part of the generation who were born on the eve of the creation of the State of Lithuania – between 1917 and 1922 – and who, having graduated from the schools of the newly independent state, entered university by the end of 1930s with a distinct aim to contribute to the European culture worthy of a free nation. However, the Second World War and the alternating Nazi and Soviet occupations brought an end to these youthful ideals. Because the existential choices made by these young people pulled the generation apart and, in regard to the Soviet oppression, disseminated it both geographically and axiologically, defining its conceptual coherence is somewhat problematic. Yet, reflecting on separate individual choices may help us understand the people’s motivation and the paradigms which bring this generation together on the one hand and break it up on the other.Rather than appraise the decisive generational self-conceptions in the context of 1944, the case of Albertas Dilys enables us to look into the different manifestations of conscious existential resolve, its origins, and consequences. The notion of the 1920s generation here describes the humanities students with literary aspirations who first studied at Vytautas Magnus University in Kaunas and then at Vilnius University. As high-school pupils, most of them took part in the Ateitis movement, which was a Catholic organisation opposed to the Lithuanian government of the day. At university, they joined Šatrija, a society dedicated to the study of art, literature, and philosophy.At the centre of the present research are documents testifying to Dilys’ personal existential quest and self-realisation in the context of repressions and further oppression: his memories, correspondence, notes, journals. To frame the research material, the article makes partial use of intertextual and sociocritical analysis. Dilys’ egodocumentary accounts are examined in light of historically reliable biographical and background facts. This article aims to discover and highlight in Dilys’ egodocuments his testimonies of self-reflection, personal resolve and its consequences and, by means of comparative analysis, to look for similar premises in the accounts of other contemporaries in order to indicate the epistemological gaps in the research field of the 1920s generation.Dilys’ case is by no means typical; cases like his have been deemed marginal in most sociological and sociocultural research. The history of existential choices and reflection on it, as testified in Dilys’ egodocuments, have a distinct character: emphasis is placed on inner resistance, whose parallels extend into the spiritual maturity derived from youthful ideals, the quest for the meaning of life, and the adoption of an ethical position at the expense of career development and professional life and subjection to ostracism and relative poverty. This egodocumentary research reveals the complexity of uncompromising choices and their consequences in a repressive and oppressive society. Dilys’ egodocuments are strongly oriented toward the past as well as the ideal of youth and the pastoral world of the parental home. Similar utopian undertones and pathos as well as solidarity with the 1920s generation of idealists trapped in a historical downfall – characteristically, this generation is perceived from passéist perspective, in retro-spective projection that centers on the youthful past – crop up in the accounts of other former members of Šatrija. The paradigm of Dilys’ existential choices calls for a further inquiry into the life of the 1920s generation.Straipsnyje iš egodokumentinės perspektyvos tiriamas 20-ųjų metų kartos lituanisto, politinio kalinio Alberto Dilio (1920–2000) privačiojoje raštijoje fiksuojamas ir reflektuojamas bekompromisio kelio pasirinkimas sovietų okupacijos sąlygomis. Analizuojami asmeninio apsisprendimo paieškas ir savisteigą represinėje visuomenėje liudijantys dokumentai: įvairūs Dilio prisiminimai, korespondencija, užrašai, dienoraščiai. Tiriamo atvejo medžiagai įkontekstinti iš dalies pasitelkiami intertekstinės ir sociokritinės analizės įrankiai, Dilio egodokumentų liudijimai „tikrinami“ istoriškai patikimais biografiniais ir foniniais faktais.Straipsnio tikslas yra rasti ir išryškinti Dilio egodokumentikoje savivokos ir asmeninio apsisprendimo bei jo pasekmių liudijimą kaip savitą, papildantį ligšiol mokslinėje literatūroje išryškintus modelius, atvejį. Tai darant pasitelkiama lyginamoji prieiga, ieškoma tokios savivokos prielaidų kitų amžininkų liudijimuose, atkreipiamas dėmesys į pildytinas spragas šios kartos tyrimų lauke.Analizuotuose Dilio egodokumentuose ryški atgręžtis į praeitį, jaunystės ir tėvų namų arkadijos idealizavimas, idealistinė, patosiška intonacija, solidarumo su į „istorinę griūtį“ patekusia vadinamąja 20-ųjų metų idealistų karta (suvokiama paseistiškai, kokia buvusi jaunystėje) teigimas, pastebimi ir kitų buvusių šatrijiečių egodokumentuose
Le rôle de la musique dans l’ œuvre romanesque de Ken Bugul
Get PDFThe analysis of the place that music occupies in the works of Ken Bugul is the main purpose of this article. The author will try to present how this art manifests in her novels paying attention to the unique character of literary language. The rhythm, the intensity, the repetitions that appear in the Bugul’s texts become inseparables elements of her creation and show the musicality of her work.L’objectif de cette étude est d’analyser la place qu’occupe la musique dans l’œuvre littéraire de Ken Bugul. En s’appuyant sur les romans de cette écrivaine sénégalaise, l’auteure de l’article essayera de montrer comment cet art s’y manifeste. Cette étude se positionnera d’un point de vue thématique ainsi que formel. On tentera de mettre l’accent sur le caractère particulier du langage de ses œuvres. Le rythme, l’intensité et les répétitions qui apparaîssent chez Bugul deviennent des éléments inséparables de sa création et témoignent de sa musicalité
Drama ir politika Atlantidos pasakojime
Get PDFThis paper explores the prevailing readings of the Atlantis story. The purpose of this paper is to show how interpretative judgements on the narrator’s intentions, the objectives of the characters, and the genre and the development of the story prepares the grounds for the political understanding of Athens and Atlantis. In this way, I will show how the dramatic framework influences the expression of political thought. I argue that the most important dramatic feature of the story is Critias’ interaction with Socrates and Timaeus, which explains why Critias composes two speeches that are essentially dedicated to the question of political origins.Šiame straipsnyje apžvelgsime standartines Platono pasakojimo apie Atlantidą interpretacijas. Straipsnio tikslas – įvardyti, kaip konkretūs tyrėjų sprendimai dėl dialogo veikėjų tikslų, pasakotojo intencijų, Atlantidos pasakojimo žanro ir siužeto plėtotės duoda pagrindą įvairioms politinio skaitymo galimybėms. Taip atskleisime draminės sąrangos įtaką politinės minties raiškai. Straipsnyje teigiama, kad Kritijo sąveika su Sokratu ir Timaju geriausiai paaiškina, kodėl dviejose Kritijo kalbose daugiausia dėmesio skiriama valstybių atsiradimo klausimui
Anagnorisė Aristotelio Poetikoje:definicijos ir klasifikacijos problemos
Get PDFThe article analyses the problems of meaning and classification of the term anagnorisis (ἀναγνώρισις) as it is defined in Aristotle’s Poetics. It focuses on how the term anagnorisis is understood and interpreted by scholars – different translations and their interpretations of the same type of anagnorisis are compared. The article also searches for the answers to the following questions: does the term of anagnorisis discussed by Aristotle mean the recognition of persons or just any kind of truth in a drama; why do some translators differentiate five and others six types of anagnorisis; what did Aristotle bear in mind by distinguishing the type of anagnorisis called “the recognition made by a poet himself” (Arist. Poet. XVI, 1454b 30–31), whereas it is known that all recognitions were created by poets themselves; does “an anagnorisis by false reasoning (a false syllogism)” occur among tragedy characters or does the audience at first misjudge, but later recognises the characters correctly?The author of the article argues that the version of the Arabic manuscript of Aristotle’s Poetics is more logical, as it states that one of the characters (θατέρου) rather than a spectator (θεάτρου) mistakenly recognises another character (Arist. Poet. XVI, 1455a 12–17). First of all, Aristotle does not state specifically that this is the fifth (different from all the others) way of recognition, but while discussing the fourth way of “anagnorisis by reasoning”, he adds that there is also and “an anagnorisis by false reasoning (a false syllogism)” (Arist. Poet. XVI, 1455a 12–13). Secondly, the recognitions described by Aristotle in Part XVI of Poetics occur between two characters, when one has to recognise the other. Therefore, the author of the article does not agree with the opinion by Dana Munteanu (2002) – that in Menander’s comedy Epitrepontes, Smikrine’s false recognition should be referred to as an erroneous spectator’s recognition, whereas at the end of the play Menander depicts Smikrine as a misled spectator just observing the events uninvolved without understanding them properly. By such leaving the word “spectator” in Aristotle’s classification of the fifth type of anagnorisis and using it for a character observing the actions of the play uninvolved, an ambiguity occurs, as Aristotle himself in his Poetics speaks many times about an actual spectator of the tragedy, who while watching the action of the play experiences fear and pity.The author of the article thinks that the translation of chapter XVI of Aristotle’s Poetics by Marcelinas Ročka (1990) should be corrected in some places. At the fifth “recognition by false reasoning”, a note in square brackets stating that this is the last recognition should be omitted. In fact, it is the next-to-last recognition discussed by Aristotle. In translation “the recognitions invented by the poet himself”, some other word can be used, as Aristotle here has in mind that poets usually write poorly and use trite recognitions. A phrase “to contrive” (in Lithuanian “sukurpti”) could be used here instead, as it means “to make or put together roughly or hastily”. It is also true speaking of the translation that a character of the play rather than the audience recognises another character by false reasoning.Finally, the author of the article draws a conclusion that according to Aristotle an anagnorisis is the recognition of persons occurring among characters of the play. In Aristotle’s Poetics, six variants of anagnorisis are distinguished and their classification made based on the principle of artistry and the originality of its use in plays.Straipsnyje analizuojamos Aristotelio Poetikoje apibrėžto termino „anagnorisė“ (ἀναγνώρισις) reikšmės ir klasifikacijos problemos. Dėmesys kreipiamas į tai, kaip anagnorisė buvo suprantama ir interpretuojama klasikinės filologijos specialistų: lyginami skirtingi tų pačių anagnorisės rūšių vertimai, jų interpretacijos. Ieškoma atsakymo į klausimus, kodėl vieni vertėjai išskiria penkias, kiti – šešias anagnorisės rūšis; ką turėjo omenyje Aristotelis, išskirdamas anagnorisės rūšį, kurią pavadino „paties poeto sugalvoti atpažinimai“ (Arist. Poet. XVI, 1454b 30–31), kai žinoma, kad visus atpažinimus dramose kūrė patys poetai. Taip pat siekiama atsakyti į klausimą, ar tarp tragedijos personažų vyksta anagnorisė, kylanti iš klaidingo silogizmo, ar žiūrovai iš pradžių personažų neatpažįsta ir vėliau atpažįsta juos teisingai. Daroma išvada, kad Aristotelis išskyrė šešias anagnorisės rūšis, turėdamas omenyje, kad anagnorisė tarp personažų vyksta, kad klasifikacija Aristotelio Poetikoje sudaryta remiantis meniškumo ir anagnorisės panaudojimo dramose originalumo principu
„Neik su velniu obuoliauti“: Fausto mitas Eduardo Mieželaičio kūryboje
Get PDFThis article analyzes the reflection on the myth of Faust in the work of Eduardas Mieželaitis (1919–1997). The author’s initial hypothesis that the interpretation of this myth can be used as another argument for revealing the poet’s dramatic feelings and self-reflection of inauthentic Soviet existence is tested. Together with other signs of existential self-abuse (such as the metaphors of “the ringed bird” and “the masked word”), this could help answer the question of whether the description of the 1920s generation (Alfonsas Nyka-Niliūnas, Bronius Krivickas, etc.) as “tragic” would fit Mieželaitis. Intertextuality is the best way to describe the nature of the analysis and socio-criticism would describe the interpretation of the results.E. Mieželaitis was (and still is) one of the most intertextual Lithuanian authors. The use of the “alien word” in his texts was a conceptual position of the poet’s creative consciousness. For him the world’s culture has become a central topic, and his texts have been occupied by the masters of arts and sciences of antiquity, Renaissance, or New Age, as well as modern European authors, Oriental classics, Bible quotations, paraphrases, allusions and other forms of culture. For the poet, Goethe’s Faust is one of such foundational texts, even if the Soviet era did not favor the “myths of the great contemplation” (Vytautas Kubilius). The forever relevant myth of Faust raises a fundamental question of person’s life choice – what one is prepared to sacrifice for one’s purpose, and what the results of that “sacrifice” are. But in the Soviet times Mieželaitis did not focus on this myth as a “symbol of the duality of human’s nature” – his human is rather one-dimensional and monolithic, full of positive energy directed towards technological progress and an absolute belief in the cognitive powers of man. This is the exact aspect that Faust embodies in Mieželaitis’ works, as if it was his “new man”, the product of the Enlightenment era. Mieželaitis did not care about the moment of negotiations between Faust and Mephistopheles – for him there could easily be no Mephistopheles. However, in late works (Postskriptumai, 1986; Gnomos, 1987; Laida, 1992), where the poet reflects on his life and creative path, there are many signs of disillusionment with the myth of human omnipotence as the results of his labor have turned against him – he wanted to create a heaven, but got a hell in the form of Hiroshima. It is at this point that Mephistopheles dominates the duet with Faust, but in general they have both become a “common place” and their function is limited by the text’s aesthetic figurativeness.My conclusion is that eventually the rich allusions to Faust in Mieželaitis’ works did not translate into reflections on the essence or meaning of being – he was not concerned with the problematics of human’s choices, duality, or contradictions. Thus, my initial expectation that the interpretation of the Faust myth may be another argument for revealing the poet’s dramatic feelings and self-reflection of inauthentic existence in the Soviet times was essentially not confirmed. And that could have been another argument for adding him to the social group of the 1920s.On the other hand, looking from the distant present, it is my opinion that Mieželaitis is still a part of the tragic generation, as the whole generation – whether they retreated to the West, or remained in Soviet Lithuania, collaborated or resisted – became hostages of the Second World War and the Soviet occupation.Straipsnyje analizuojama Fausto mito refleksija Eduardo Mieželaičio (1919–1997) kūryboje. Tikrinama pradinė autorės hipotezė, esą šio mito interpretacija gali būti dar vienas argumentas, atskleidžiant dramatišką poeto savijautą ir neautentiškos egzistencijos savirefleksiją sovietmečiu. Kartu su kitais egzistencinės prievartos prieš save patį ženklais (kad ir „žieduoto paukščio“, „kaukėto žodžio“ metaforos), tai galėtų padėti atsakyti į klausimą, ar Mieželaičiui tiktų XX a. 2-ojo dešimtmečio kartos (Alfonsas Nyka-Niliūnas, Bronius Krivickas ir kt.) apibūdinimas „tragiškąja“. Išanalizavus turimą medžiagą, pasirodė, jog Fausto mito ir, konkrečiau, J. W. Goethe’ės Fausto intertekstai Mieželaičio kūryboje gana dažni, bet jie pasitelkiami ne vidinei poezijos subjekto savianalizei, pavyzdžiui, Fausto ir Mefistofelio derybų momentui, bet kaip dar vienai savo kūrybos herojaus identifikacijai – „naujojo žmogaus“ faustiškajam variantui. Remiantis kūryba, atrodo, kad Mieželaičio alter ego neturi tragiškajam herojui būtinų prielaidų: jis iš prigimties yra tiesiog „fiziologinis optimistas“ – poeto žodžiais, pagonis, kaip Goethe. Nors Mieželaičio kūryboje „Fausto“ mitas minimas dažnai, jis yra tapęs „bendrąja vieta“ ir jo funkcija dažniausiai ribojasi teksto estetiniu figūratyvumu
Abejoti dėl laiko. Belaikiškumas vėlyvojoje Paulio Celano kūryboje
Get PDF The poetry of Paul Celan has a reflected intention to ask about the temporal determination of human being and simultaneously questions the term and definition of time. In may of his works he reflects he the catastrophic transformation, the reflection also includes the revision of the conventional conception of time. He tries to show, that beside the usual forms of historical, causal und linear time, individuals also perceive timelessness. Paradoxically, the accomplishment of a historical event (Holocaust) evokes a consciousness of the historical caesura, and thus of the untold and the inhospitable. In his perception, for the poet, writing (after holocaust) means writing after apocalyptic break, where history does not exist, in other words surrounded by the timelessness. The task of preserving the memory of what happened in poetry goes hand in hand with the awareness of a disorder and often borders on the impossibility of verbalizing what has happened or even being able to express itself verbally. The experience of disconnection from the temporal sequence of events (through trauma) coincides with the moments of speechlessness, emptiness in consciousness, verbal utterance, and time experience overlap. This tendency is radicalized especially in his late work. In this article late works of Paul Celan, that deal with the questions of timelessness and manifestations of it are analysed (“Zeitlücke”, “Die Trombonestelle” “Largo” and others).Viena iš svarbiausių Paulio Celano kūrybos temų – laiko problema. Ji apima tiek egzistencinio buvimo laike, tiek gyvenimo konkrečioje istorinėje epochoje aspektus. Atsižvelgus į laiko problemos plotį ir laikinių aspektų įvairovę, šio straipsnio objektu pasirinkta laiko tarpų problemika ir laiko neigimo poetika. Ši problemika vėlyvojoje kūryboje komplikuočiausia, todėl labiausiai tyrinėtina. Vėlyvuosiuose tekstuose ypatingai susitinka kalba ir laikas: kalbėjimo, nutilimo, nebylumo paradigma kiekviename tekste vis iš naujo sąveikauja su tekančiu, sustojančiu, amžinybėn / į niekur sutekančiu laiku. Vėlyvojoje kūryboje dar griežčiau laikomasi ir iki tol svarbios žodžių atrankos, sintaksės paprastinimo principo, rašymo elipsėmis. Trumpėja eilėraščio „siužeto“ laikas – ilgėja tarpų, nepasakytumo laikas, o kartu ir eilėraščio suvokimo laikas. Kompozicinis paskiro teksto taupumas ir rišlumo suardymas eina išvien su laiko suvokimo aporijomis. Šios analizės tikslas – patyrinėti vėlyvojoje kūryboje užsimezgantį specifinį lūžius aktualizuojantį santykį su laiku, kuris pasireiškia kaip švytavimas tarp laiko ir belaikiškumo sampratų