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The role of personal and sports values on intentions to compete clean or to cheat.
No full textRelevance of the research. Cheating is defined as the voluntary violation of established rules, characterized by an element of deception (Green, 2006). The opposite of cheating is clean sport (Petróczi et al., 2021). When athletes are 'clean', their sports potential is reached because of proper training, nutrition, and rest, and not because of banned substances (USADA, 2012). Recently the phenomenon of cheating has attracted more and more attention from researchers due to the increased cheating scandals, match-fixing and doping in sports (Kavussanu, 2014; Petróczi & Boardley, 2022; Petróczi et al., 2021; Ponseti et al., 2012; Šukys et al., 2019). It means that anti-doping violations are not the only form of cheating in sports. There are other forms of cheating, such as match-fixing (Schöber & Stadtmann 2022). Match-fixing is an attempt to deliberately distort the outcome of a sports game in order to gain material benefits (Huggins, 2020). Therefore, cheating athletes may lie, deceive, use doping, and commit other violations of the rules not only for their own benefit but also for the benefit of other in order to gain some advantage (Vorstenbosch, 2010). When examining cheating in sports, special attention is paid to doping. Doping is an intentional violation of established sports rules and one of the forms of cheating in sports (Kavussanu , 2019). A recent study revealed that up to 57.1 % athletes are using doping (Ulrich et al., 2018). It is much higher than 1-2%. athletes who are usually caught committing anti-doping violations (World Anti-Doping Agency, 2021). Scientific research of the topic. Cheating in sports can create a variety of ethical issues. Therefore, in the last decade, the interest of researchers in moral behavior in sports has increased (Kavussanu, 2019), especially emphasizing prosocial and antisocial behavior. Antisocial behavior is associated with cheating (Sage, Kavussanu, & Duda , 2006). Researchers have found that cheating is associated with both external and internal factors. External factors include moral climate, (Spruit, Kavussanu, Smit & IJntema, 2019), team influence (Bartholomew, Ntoumanis & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, 2010), parental influence (Šukys, Karanauskienė, & Šmigelskaitė, 2019) and motivational climate created by a coach (Leo et al., 2009; Kavussanu et al., 2020). Internal factors include personality traits (Nicholls et al., 2017), moral identity (Hurst et al., 2023; Ring, Kavussanu, & Hurst, 2018; Sukys et al., 2021), moral disengagement (Kavussanu & Ring, 2017), doping self-regulatory efficacy (Ring & Kavussanu, 2018) and attitudes towards doping (Miškulin, 2020). Problem of the research. Cheating in sports is associated with various factors mentioned above, but a particularly important however less studied internal factor is values. Based on Schwartz's (1992) theory of universal values, four higher-level value dimensions are identified: self-enhancement (power, achievement, hedonism), self-transcendence (universalism, benevolence), openness to change (stimulation, self-regulation), and conservation (conformity, tradition, and security). Lee et al. (2008) found that values influence decision-making and behavior. Depending on which values are more important to athletes, they may be inclined to behave one way or another, for example, to cheat in sports or not to cheat. Ring, Kavussanu, and Gürpınar (2020) revealed that athletes who value self-enhancement values are more likely to cheat in sports, while athletes who value self-transcendence and conservation values are less likely to cheat. However, not only personal values can influence the intentions and behavior of athletes, but also sports values. Lee et al. (2000, 2007, 2008) identified such sports values: moral, competence and status. Moral, competence and status values can influence athletes' attitudes and choices. Lee et al. (2008) found that moral and competence values are positively related to prosocial attitudes, and moral values are negatively related to attitudes toward cheating. Status values have been found to be positively related to antisocial attitudes, such as attitudes toward cheating in sports. A study by Kavussanu (2019) found a negative relationship between athletes' moral values and the likelihood of doping. It is important to emphasize that there are few scientific studies that examine the relationship between athletes' values and cheating in sports. In other words, it is a new topic, and researchers are just beginning to examine the connections between personal and sports values and athletes' antisocial behavior (Ring et al., 2023). In addition, uncovering the relationship between athletes' values and cheating could contribute to the development of educational doping prevention programs. This assumption is supported by studies revealing the influence of integrated values in sports on the likelihood of reducing doping (Kavussanu et al., 2020). In addition, anti-doping organizations integrate value-based educational programs to promote clean sport, such as “100% ME” (UKAD, 2018), “TrueSport” (USADA, 2012) and “Sport Values in Every Classroom” (WADA, 2019). Therefore, it is important to know which values have a greater influence on athletes' decision to cheat. Scientific research examining the issue of cheating in sports has so far delved more into the issue of doping. But since cheating in sports is not only related to doping, there is a lack of knowledge and understanding in order to find out the factors that lead to cheating. Hence, it is necessary to study the influence of values on cheating in addition to the other already examined factors. Object of the research is the relationship between athletes' values and their intentions to compete clean or to cheat. Questions: What are athletes' personal and sports values and how are they associated with intentions to compete clean or to cheat? How are athletes' personal and sports values associated with intentions to compete clean or to cheat, taking into account other internal and external factors? How do athletes and coaches perceive cheating and clean sport? Purpose of the research is to reveal the role of values in athletes' intentions to compete clean or to cheat in sport. Aims of the research: 1. To examine the concept of cheating in sport and the factors that determine it. 2. To determine the expression of athletes' personal and sports values and their relationship with intentions compete clean or to cheat. 3. To determine the relationships of athletes' moral identity, doping self-regulatory efficacy, attitudes towards cheating and the empowering or disempowering motivational climate created by a coach with intentions to compete clean or to cheat. 4. To identify the impact of personal and sports values, as well as internal and external factors, on athletes' intentions to compete clean or to cheat. 5. To reveal how athletes and coaches perceive the factors that are associated with clean sport and cheating. Research hypotheses: H1. We hypothesize that athletes who value self-enhancement, openness to change and status values will have positive attitudes toward cheating and negative intentions to compete clean. Accordingly, athletes who value self-transcendence, conservation, moral and competence values will have negative attitudes toward cheating and positive attitudes toward clean sport. Values of self-transcendence and conservation will influence a higher moral identity. In contrast, self-enhancement and status values will influence lower moral identity. Athletes with higher moral identity are more likely not to engage in cheating in sports. Conversely, athletes with lower moral identity are more likely to engage in cheating in sports. H2. The higher doping self-regulatory efficacy, the less likely athletes are intended to cheat in sports and more likely they are to compete clean. Conversely, the lower doping self-regulatory efficacy, the more likely athletes are intended to cheat in sports and less likely to compete clean. H3. Athletes with positive attitudes toward cheating are more likely to cheat in sports. Conversely, athletes with negative attitudes toward cheating are more likely to compete clean. H4. Athletes who perceive their coach to create a disempowering motivational climate are more intended to cheat in sports and less intended to compete clean. In contrast, athletes who perceive their coach to create an empowering motivational climate are less intended to cheat in sports and more intended to compete clean. Theoretical provisions of the research There is a relationship between values and cheating behavior in sports (Ring et al., 2020; Ring et al., 2022), therefore this dissertation is based on Schwartz's theory of universal values (1992). Schwartz identified ten different types of values, which were divided into four higher-level dimensions: self-enhancement, self-transcendence, openness to change, and conservation. This theory of universal values not only explains personal values, but also explains sports values, which were identified by Lee and Cockman (1995). Other theoretical provisions that are used in this dissertation are achievement goal theory (AGT) and self-determination theory (SDT). Based on these theories, the concept of empowering and disempowering motivational climate created by a coach was developed. Novelty of the research The novelty of the dissertation is characterized by the fact that it delved into the relationships between personal and sports values and cheating. It analysed how these values are related to intentions to compete clean in sports. In addition, other factors such as moral identity, doping self-regulatory efficacy, attitudes towards doping/cheating and the empowering or disempowering motivational climate created by a coach were examined. We examined not how individual factors are related to cheating in sports, but rather analysed the relationship of all these factors with cheating in a complex manner. Moreover, we examined how these above-mentioned factors influence intentions to cheat and compete clean in sports. This study reveals new results highlighting that personal and sports values have significant relationships with both intentions to cheat in sports and intentions to compete clean. It is also revealed that moral identity, doping self-regulatory efficacy and the empowering or disempowering motivational climate created by a coach are also related to intentions to compete clean and intentions to cheat. These are new and important results that demonstrate the importance of both external and internal factors in cheating in sports, with particular emphasis on the role of internal factors. This study reveals new findings that are relevant to the development of effective anti-doping strategies to combat cheating in sports. Practical significance This dissertation contributes to the improvement of anti-doping education. Factors that are associated with cheating in sports can be included into athletes’ education about clean sport. When contributing to the education of athletes, it is particularly important to emphasize the role of values in order to reduce the prevalence of cheating in sports. Anti-doping education should include values education for athletes in educational programs, as well as encourage coaches to create an empowering motivational climate. CONCLUSIONS 1. Cheating in sports is perceived not only as doping, but also as match-fixing, illegal sports betting, fraudulent violation of sports regulations and threats to competitors. Athletes and coaches perceive doping as one among several forms of cheating in sports, rather the than sole form. Cheating is related to various factors, both internal, such as personal and sports values, doping self-regulatory efficacy, moral identity, attitudes towards doping, intentions to cheat, and external, such as the empowering and disempowering climate created by a coach. The study revealed that athletes generally are not inclined to engage in cheating behavior. Moreover, athletes are more inclined to compete clean in sports rather than to cheat. 2. The most important personal values for athletes are related to self-transcendence. Self-enhancement and openness to change values are positively related to intentions to cheat and negatively related to intentions to compete clean. In contrast, self-transcendence and conservation values have a negative relationship with intentions to cheat and a positive relationship with intentions to compete clean. The most important sports values for athletes are competence values. A positive, statistically significant relationship was revealed between moral and competence values and intention to compete clean, while a negative relationship was found with the intention to cheat. In contrast, status values are positively related to intentions to cheat and negatively related to intentions to compete clean. 3. Moral identity and doping self-regulatory efficacy are positively related to intentions to compete clean and negatively related to intentions to cheat. Statistically significant relationships were found between athletes' attitudes towards cheating and both intentions to cheat and intentions to compete clean. In other words, the more negative attitudes towards cheating are, the more athletes tend to compete clean. On the contrary, the more positive the attitudes towards cheating are, the more athletes tend to cheat. The study revealed that athletes perceive a coach more as creating an empowering climate in the team rather than a disempowering one. The more a coach is seen as creating an empowering climate, the more athletes' attitudes towards cheating are negative, and the more likely athletes are to compete clean in sports and the less likely they are to intend to use doping. Conversely, the more a coach is seen as creating a disempowering climate, the more positive athletes' attitudes towards doping are and the less likely the athletes are intended to compete clean in sports. 4. When assessing the impact of internal and external factors on athletes' intentions to cheat and compete clean, it was found that personal and sports values, moral identity, doping self-regulatory efficacy, attitudes towards doping and the coach- created climate - all these factors influence athletes' intentions to compete clean or to use doping. Significant predictive factors for intentions to use doping were lower moral identity, lower doping self-regulatory efficacy, and positive attitudes towards doping/cheating (higher acceptance of cheating). Significant predictive factors for intentions to compete clean were more important self-transcendence, conservatism, and moral values, higher moral identity, higher doping self-regulatory efficacy and negative attitudes towards cheating (less acceptance of cheating). This means that internal factors have a greater impact on athletes' intention to cheat compared to external factors. These are new and significant results that reveal the importance of internal factors in cheating in sports, with particular emphasis on the role of values. This is important for the development of new strategies aimed at combating cheating in sports. 5. The qualitative study revealed how athletes and coaches perceive the factors that encourage clean sport. It was found that: 5.1. Athletes and coaches believe that even in the presence of external pressure to use doping, the athletes can resist this pressure if they have a strong internal attitudes against doping, high morals and values. This means that internal factors are considered to be essential in influencing cheating in sports. 5.2. Athletes and coaches, identifying the reasons that would encourage them to compete clean in sports, revealed that the unwillingness to suffer shame of being excluded from sports can stop athletes from using doping and encourage them to compete clean. Also, the fear of harming one's health and athletes' own values, such as honesty, encourage athletes to compete in sports clean. 5.3. Athletes and coaches stated that doping prevention is necessary for athletes. The study revealed that doping prevention should be focused on young athletes whose value system has not yet been formed. 5.4. Doping prevention initiatives should be carried out by the state, schools, sports organizations and anti-doping agencies. Since athletes become familiar with the concepts of doping at a very young age, it is believed that prevention should take place while still in school. Anti-doping policy should put more emphasis on clean sport, emphasizing the role of values, thus aiming to reduce the prevalence of doping in sports
Impact of website quality and user satisfaction on consumer loyalty in Lithuanian C2C E-commerce platforms /
No full textThis study was commenced to understand the effect of consumer satisfaction and website quality on loyalty in the Consumer to Consumer (C2C) E-Commerce business. This study used a survey method with the questionnaire as an instrument to gather the data required. As many as 400 respondents participated in this study, whereas all data was collected from those living in Lithuania and have used this website before. All data was then further processed and analysed using SPSS software. Descriptive statistics and regression analyses was used to determine website quality and satisfaction impact for consumer loyalty. After analysing all the gathered data, it can be concluded that website quality, and satisfaction positively affect customer loyalty in the C2C e-commerce business
Enhancing competitiveness of e-commerce and the online retail industry via social media: evidence from an AI-integrated routine model /
No full textThis paper examines the connections between social media efficiency and the AI-integrated routine model and its dimensions (content analysis, social influence, and demographics), enhancing the competitiveness of online retail and the e-commerce industry. The mediation of personality traits, motivations, and cognitive aspects is further examined in this study. The study also measures the moderation of machine learning algorithms between social media efficiency and AI-integrated routine models and how it enhances e-commerce and retail industry competitiveness. The structured and modified questionnaire was used to collect 487 responses from the e-commerce and online retail industries of China, Pakistan, India, and the United States. The researchers used Smart-PLS 4.0 software to execute the PLS-SEM modelling. The study’s conclusions showed that the AI-integrated model significantly and positively impacts social media efficiency, which enhances the competitiveness of the e-commerce and online retail industry. The findings further revealed that demographics, social influence, and content analysis substantially and positively influence the AI-integrated routine model. The study also showed that personality traits, motivations, and cognitive elements significantly moderate exogenous and endogenous variables and mediate them in many serial modes. Finally, it is concluded that machine learning algorithms significantly and positively moderate the relationship between the efficiency of social media and AI-integrated routine models. These findings have substantial theoretical and management ramifications for future researchers and industry practitioners. Industry practitioners can use effective strategies to enhance e-commerce and online retail competitiveness
Passive heating-induced changes in muscle contractile function are not further augmented by prolonged exposure in young males experiencing moderate thermal stress /
No full textBackground: We investigated the impact of 1) passive heating (PH) induced by single and intermittent/prolonged hot-water immersion (HWI) and 2) the duration of PH, on muscle contractile function under the unfatigued state, and during the development of muscle fatigue. Methods: Twelve young males volunteered for this study consisting of two phases: single phase (SP) followed by intermittent/prolonged phase (IPP), with both phases including two conditions (i.e., four trials in total) performed randomly: control passive sitting (CON) and HWI (44–45°C; water up to the waist level). SP-HWI included one continuous 45-min bath (from 15 to 60 min). IPP-HWI included an initial 45-min bath (from 15 to 60 min) followed by eight additional 15-min baths interspaced with 15-min breaks at room temperature between 75 and 300 min. Intramuscular (Tmu; measured in the vastus lateralis muscle) and rectal (Trec) temperatures were determined. Neuromuscular testing (performed in the knee extensors and flexors) was performed at baseline and 60 min later during SP, and at baseline, 60, 90, 150 and 300 min after baseline during IPP. A fatiguing protocol (100 electrical stimulations of the knee extensors) was performed after the last neuromuscular testing of each trial. Results: HWI increased Tmu and Trec to 38°C–38.5°C (p < 0.05) during both SP and IPP. Under the unfatigued state, HWI did not affect electrically induced torques at 20 Hz (P20) and 100 Hz (P100). However, it induced a shift towards a faster contractile profile during both SP and IPP, as evidenced by a decreased P20/P100 ratio (p < 0.05) and an improved muscle relaxation (i.e., reduced half-relaxation time and increased rate of torque relaxation; p < 0.05). Despite a reduced voluntary activation (i.e., −2.63% ± 4.19% after SP-HWI and −5.73% ± 4.31% after IPP-HWI; condition effect: p < 0.001), HWI did not impair maximal isokinetic and isometric contraction torques. During the fatiguing protocol, fatigue index and the changes in muscle contractile properties were larger after HWI than CON conditions (p < 0.05). Finally, none of these parameters were significantly affected by the heating duration. Conclusion: PH induces changes in muscle contractile function which are not augmented by prolonged exposure when thermal stress is moderate
Hippocampal neurometabolic and structural changes from pre-to post-COVID-19: A case-series study /
No full textBackground Neurological complications of the COVID-19 infection may be caused in part by local neurochemical and structural abnormalities that could not be detected during routine medical examinations. We examined within subject neurometabolic and structural brain alterations from pre-to post-COVID-19 in the hippocampal region of three elderly individuals (aged 63–68 years) who had a COVID-19 infection with mild symptoms. Patients were participating in an interventional study in which they were closely monitored at the time they were diagnosed with COVID-19. Patients 1 and 2 just completed 18–20 resistance training sessions prior to their diagnosis. Patient 3 was assigned to a non-training condition in the same study. Methods Whole brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) images and proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) of the left hippocampus were collected before and after infection. Structural and spectroscopic imaging measures post-COVID-19 were contrasted to the pre-COVID-19 measures and were compared with values for Minimal Detectable Change at 95% (MDC95) and 90% (MDC90) confidence from a group of six elderly (aged 60–79 years) without COVID-19 that participated in the same study. Results After SARS-COV-2 infection, we observed a reduction of glutamate-glutamine (Glx) in Patients 1 and 2 (≥ 42.0%) and elevation of myo-inositol (mIns) and N-acetyl-aspartate (NAA) in Patient 3 (≥ 36.4%); all > MDC90. MRI findings showed increased (Patients 1 and 2) or unchanged (Patient 3) hippocampal volume. Conclusions Overall, findings from this exploratory study suggest that mild COVID-19 infection could be associated with development of local neuroinflammation and reduced glutamate levels in the hippocampus. Our 1H-MRS findings may have clinical value for explaining chronic neurological and psychological complaints in COVID-19 long-haulers
Patterns and trajectories of inequality in physical activity from childhood to adolescence in Kazakhstan /
No full textObjective Sociodemographic differences in physical activity (PA) levels during the transition from childhood to adolescence, particularly in Central Asian countries, is lacking. In this study, we examine individual, family and environmental sociodemographic variables associated with PA among children and young adolescents in Kazakhstan. Study design Secondary data analyses of two nationally representative cross-sectional studies administered by parents of children (aged 7–9 y) and by self-report surveys (adolescents aged, 11–15 y) . Methods The 2020 Childhood Obesity Surveillance Initiative (COSI) and 2018 Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HSBC) studies were used. Predictors of daily PA by individual (gender, grade, weight status), family (family composition, family employment, family wealth), and environment (school location) factors were analysed through binary logistic regressions after adjusting for screen time. Results Among both children and adolescents, males were more physically active than females. Daily PA among children was positively associated with high family employment (OR = 1.23, CI = 1.03–1.48) or living in an urban location (OR = 0.58, CI = 0.49–0.70). Daily PA was associated with low family wealth, two-parent families (OR = 1.25 CI = 1.08–1.44) or living in a rural location (OR = 1.18 CI = 1.04–1.34) among adolescents. Conclusion In Kazakhstan, the trajectory of children’s and adolescent’s PA levels, differed according to individual, family and environmental characteristics , suggesting a need for age-specific, targeted interventions to promote PA, appropriate policies that promote programs in schools, communities, and development of infrastructure for physically active lifestyles
Macroeconomic factors driving exchange rate volatility and economic sustainability: case study of Pakistan /
No full textVolatility increases the risk of exchange rate, and the risk of exchange rate refers to losing money due to fluctuations in the exchange rate. Thus, it significantly impacts the country's economic development stability or sustainability, as making investment and trade decisions under volatile exchange rates is complicated. The macroeconomic stability of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations can only be achieved partially with the fluctuation of the exchange rate in a country. Therefore, to stabilise exchange rate fluctuations, Pakistan's policy makers are making determinations about the US dollar specifically, which is one of the main reasons why this research study aims to identify the macroeconomic factors that determine the volatility of exchange rates in Pakistan; therefore, for this research study, annual data is used. This study uses an Autoregressive distribution lag (ARDL) model, which assesses cointegration between variables to see their short- and long-term relationship. As a result, there is cointegration, according to the results of the ARDL bound test. Furthermore, in short- and long-period relationships, debt, interest rates, and political stability are revealed to have statistically significant consequences on currency rate volatility. Finally, the Granger causality test analyses that terms of trade, debt, political stability, and inflation cause fluctuations in the exchange rate. On the contrary, the volatility of the exchange rate affects the country's current account. As a result, it is stated that, except for current account balance and interest rate from Granger causality, all the macroeconomic factors selected in this study are drivers of exchange rate volatility. However, the vital common determinants from the ARDL and Granger test are debt and political stability, which influence exchange rate fluctuation and hamper the country's economic sustainability. This study implies that the government should also reduce its debt financing by reducing its non-productive expenditure and ensuring political stability, essential for stabilising the exchange rate. This macroeconomic stability can increase the impact of the market rate to influence foreign direct investment, leading to appreciation of the currency and sustainable economic growth of the country
An ecological and embodied approach for training the racecar driver /
No full textIn the dynamic sport of racecar driving, split-second decisions and rapid execution are imperative. Such an environment requires a tight functional coupling of perception and action. This paper introduces an approach for training racecar drivers rooted in ecological and embodied perspectives. It discusses three pivotal affordances of racecar driving: turn-ability, overtake-ability, and defend-ability. The paper also discusses the relevant environment and equipment (i.e., simulators) that can be useful for training racecar drivers. In addition, practice activities relevant for the actual racetrack or to the simulator are discussed. Coaches are encouraged to try and implement the proposed training strategies (or parts of it), evaluating their impact on racing performance. Furthermore, researchers can continue exploring these principles, fostering a fusion of empirical insights with practical expertise from coaches and racing communities. By synergizing empirical research with insights from practitioners, we can refine the strategies employed in the training of racecar drivers
