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Connections Between Red Deer Site Use Intensity and Browsing Impact on Woody Vegetation
Get PDFBrowsing by large herbivores has a significant impact on the vegetation community. Red deer (Cervus elaphus) is an intermediate browser with woody vegetation as a considerable part of its diet. Conifer saplings and bark are important food sources during the winter, whereas deciduous species are often browsed during spring and summer. Recently, the increase in most red deer populations in Europe has raised concerns over how plant communities will be affected by high abundances of large herbivores. Understanding the impact of red deer on local vegetation is important for better understanding how large ungulates shape the landscape and which factors are most important in determining their local impact on vegetation communities.
This study aimed to evaluate which environmental factors best explained the impacts recorded on woody vegetation. To do this, I looked at several potential predictors, including different indices of relative deer abundance, tree characteristics, and other environmental factors. The connections between red deer activity and the impact of browsing on woody vegetation were measured on the island of Svanøy in western Norway, using 66 camera traps to uncover the relative deer use of different areas across the island. Vegetation surveys, recording browsing and antler rubbing damage on woody species, were carried out in front of the camera traps.
The results revealed that in this study system, tree species, tree size, and the amount of time spent by red deer in front of the cameras were the best predictors of impacts on woody vegetation. Additionally, the best explanatory variables varied across different types of browsing impacts. Camera activity data were overall better predictors of browsing impact than pellet pile counts, and was a significant predictor of impacts on trees, except for apex removal. The browsing impact was highest in deciduous trees and holly (Ilex aquifolium). Still, Norway spruce (Picea abies) and silver fir (Abies alba) were among the most severely affected species by bark scraping and apex removal, respectively. In general, smaller trees had more impacts than larger trees, though saplings below 50 cm were less impacted than taller saplings within browsing reach of red deer, and very large trees were rarely browsed. The probability of browsing on bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) decreased near the forest edges. The results from this study can be used by management to improve camera trapping methods for monitoring the impact of increasing deer populations on vegetation communities. They can also help predicting how species composition, vegetation structure, and forest regeneration will be affected by different levels of red deer use intensity.Beiting frå store planteetarar har ein signifikant effekt på vegetasjonssamfunn. Hjort (Cervus elaphus) er ein intermediær beitar som har treaktig vegetasjon som ein vesentleg del av dietten. Unge bartre og bark er viktige kjelder til føde om vinteren, medan lauvtre er mykje beita om våren og sumaren. Den nylege aukinga i hjortepopulasjonane i Europa har vekt otte for korleis plantesamfunna vil bli påverka av det store talet på beitedyr. Om vi forstår betre korleis hjort påverkar lokal vegetasjon aukar det forståinga av korleis hjortedyr endrar landskapet, og kva for faktorar som er viktigast for å avgjera verknaden dei har på plantesamfunna.
Denne studien vurderte kva for miljømessige faktorar som best kan forklara beitepåverknaden registrert på tre- og buskvegetasjon. For å gjera det, såg eg på fleire moglege prediktorar, inkludert ulike indeksar for relativt tal på hjort, tre-relaterte faktorar og andre miljømessige faktorar. Samanhengen mellom hjorteaktivitet og beitepåverknad på tre- og buskvegetasjon vart målt på øya Svanøy på Vestlandet i Noreg, ved å bruka 66 viltkamera for å finna relativ bruk av hjort på ulike stader rundt om på øya. Vegetasjonsundersøkingar som kartla beite- og feieskadar på tre og buskar vart utført framfor viltkameraa.
Resultata viste at treart, trestorleik og tida brukt av hjort framfor kameraa var dei beste prediktorane for påverknad på treaktig vegetasjon i dette studiesystemet. I tillegg viste det seg at dei beste forklaringsvariablane var ulike for forskjellige typar av beitepåverknad. Aktivitetsdata frå viltkameraa var generelt betre prediktorar for beitepåverknad enn teljingar av grupper med lortkuler, og var ein signifikant prediktor for beiting på tre, med unnatak av beiting på toppskot. Beitepåverknaden var høgst på lauvtre og kristtorn (Ilex aquifolium). Likevel var gran (Picea abies) og edelgran (Abies alba) blant dei mest påverka av høvesvis barkskraping og beiting av toppskot. Generelt hadde små tre meir skadar enn større tre, men tre under 50 cm hadde mindre sannsyn for skadar enn høgare tre innanfor beiterekkevidda til hjorten, og store tre var sjeldan beita. Sannsynet for beiting på blåbær (Vaccinium myrtillus) minka nærmare skogkanten. Resultata frå denne studien kan brukast i forvaltning for å betre metodar for viltkameraovervaking for å undersøke påverknaden som større hjortebestand har på vegetasjonssamfunna. Dei kan også vera til hjelp for å sjå i førevegen korleis artssamansetning, vegetasjonsstruktur og forynging vil bli påverka av ulike nivå av bruksintensitet frå hjort
Vil hunder som behandles med imepitoin teste positivt for benzodiazepiner i urinen?
No full textUtgangspunktet for oppgaven er en hund som presenterte for NMBU Dyresykehuset Smådyr høsten 2020 for letargi og buksmerter. Hunden er en kjent epilepsipasient som på daværende tidspunkt stod på 1400 mg Pexion (imepitoin) og 100 mg Fenemal (fenobarbital) to ganger daglig. Dette tilsvarer 32 mg/kg imepitoin og 2,3 mg/kg med fenobarbital to ganger daglig. Pasientens urin ble testet for narkotika grunnet mistanke om forgiftning. Urinprøven slo ut positivt for benzodiazepiner. Ved et senere besøk i juni 2021 ble det tatt ut en ny urinprøve, som igjen ga utslag på benzodiazepiner. Dette gir grunnlag for mistanke om at pasienten testet positivt grunnet medisinen imepitoin og ikke forgiftning. Imepitoin er en partiell benzodiazepinreseptor agonist med lav affinitet og vil dermed kunne virke på benzodiazepinreseptorsetet i hjernen. Imepitoin brytes hovedsakelig ned til fire inaktive metabolitter i kroppen og deres virkning på narkotikatesten er ukjent. (Pexion | European Medicines Agency (EMA), 2013) Dette gjorde det vanskeligere å vurdere om symptomene til denne pasienten skyldtes inntak av benzodiazepiner, eller om prøven var falsk positiv grunnet imepitoinets reaksjon med antistoffer i narkotikatesten. Med denne oppgaven ønsker vi å teste om hunder som står på imepitoin og ikke har kjent inntak av eller ikke behandles med benzodiazepiner slår ut positivt på narkotikatesten. I tillegg skal vi også beskrive epilepsi hos hund og gå gjennom tilgjengelige legemidler samt de offisielle anbefalingene for behandling av idiopatisk epilepsi hos hund.
Det ble samlet spontanurin fra fire hunder som står på imepitoin. Prøvene ble testet med SureScreen Diagnostics Multi-Drug 10 Drugs Rapid Test Panel (urine) narkotikatest. Tre urinprøver testet negativt for benzodiazepiner, og én urinprøve testet positivt for benzodiazepiner. I tillegg ble én urinprøve inkludert retrospektivt fra juni 2021. Denne testet også positivt. Resultater av denne studien må vurderes kritisk grunnet liten studiepopulasjon.
Grunnet liten studiepopulasjon ble det også samlet urin fra frisk ansatthund som ikke står på noen medisiner, og vi tilsatte 400mg av imepitoin i 10 ml av urinprøven. Prøven ble testet med SureScreen Diagnostics Multi-Drug 10 Drugs Rapid Test Panel (urine) narkotikatest. Urinprøven testet negativt for benzodiazepiner. Resultater av denne studien må vurderes kritisk da dette var en in vitro studie som omgår metabolisme.
I tillegg ble 16 hunder inkludert i kontrollgruppen. Dette var hunder som eies av ansatte og studenter ved NMBU Veterinærhøgskolen. Urinprøvene deres ble testet med SureScreen Diagnostics Multi-Drug 10 Drugs Rapid Test Panel (urine) narkotikatest. Alle de 16 prøvene var negative.
Introduksjonsdelen av fordypningsoppgaven gir en oppdatert oversikt over kategorisering av epilepsi og de nyeste anbefalingene innen behandling av epilepsi hos hunder, basert på konsensuser utarbeidet av IVETF. I tillegg presenteres de ulike antikonvulsive legemidlene, deres egenskaper, samt anbefalinger angående deres bruk.
Grunnet et svært lite studieutvalg er det ikke mulig å trekke en endelig konklusjon om hvorvidt hunder som behandles med imepitoin vil teste positivt for benzodiazepiner eller ikke, til tross for at statistiske tester kan indikere en sammenheng. Klinikere bør imidlertid være oppmerksomme på muligheten for dette ved mistanke om forgiftning med benzodiazepiner.The foundation of this paper is a dog that presented at NMBU Small Animal Veterinary Hospital, in June 2020 with clinical signs of lethargy and abdominal pain. The dog was a known epileptic and was currently recieving 1400 mg Pexion (imepitoin) and 100 mg Fenemal (phenobarbital) twice daily. That is approximately a dose of 32 mg/kg imepitoin and 2,3 mg/kg phenobarbital twice daily. At presentation, the dog’s urine got tested for drugs on the suspicion of intoxication. The test came back positive for benzodiazepines. At a later revisit in June 2021, they repeated the drug test, which again came back positive for benzodiazepines. This supports the suspicion that the patient tested positive because of imepitoin and not intoxication with benzodiazepines.VE
Fra strategi til praksis: Statens vegvesens utfordringer i den praktiske gjennomføringen av bærekraftstrategien
Get PDFOffentlig sektor, særlig i rollene som eiendomsforvaltere, byggherrer og produsenter, har vekket vår interesse for hvordan bærekraftsarbeid integreres i statlige virksomheter. Målet med denne studien er å undersøke hvordan en bærekraftstrategi påvirker beslutninger i en virksomhet. Studien tar for seg Statens vegvesen som case. Oppgavens problemstilling er:
«Hvordan påvirker bærekraftstrategien beslutninger i den daglige driften, og er de ansattes holdninger til bærekraft med på å påvirke beslutningene?»
Problemstillingen er todelt, og tar for seg i hvilken grad bærekraftstrategien påvirker beslutninger, og hvorvidt de ansattes holdninger til bærekraft er med på å påvirke beslutningene. For å svare på problemstillingen benyttes empirisk tilnærming med både kvantitative og kvalitative metoder.
Studien viser at bærekraftstrategien påvirker beslutningene som tas i den daglige driften, men at det er flere faktorer som har betydning. Etterlevelsen av bærekraftstrategien påvirkes blant annet av målkonflikter mellom økonomi og bærekraft, kompetansemangel, ledelsesforankring og mangel på styringssystemer. Målkonflikter mellom økonomi og bærekraft er det som i størst grad fører til at bærekraftstrategien blir tilsidesatt.
Funnene viser at manglende formalisering av bærekraftsarbeidet fører til at ansattes holdninger og ledernes engasjement påvirker beslutningene, og at etterlevelsen av strategien derfor blir personavhengig. Funnene antyder at Statens vegvesen har et forbedringspotensial i operasjonaliseringen av bærekraftstrategien, spesielt når det gjelder formalisering av bærekraftsarbeidet.The public sector, particular in its roles as property managers, developers and producers, has sparked our interest in how sustainability efforts are integrated into governmental organizations. The aim of this study is to examine how a sustainability strategy influences decisions within an organization. The Norwegian Public Roads Administration (Statens vegvesen) has been selected as the case for this study. The research question is:
“How does the sustainability strategy influence decisions in daily operations, and to what extent do employees' attitudes towards sustainability influence the decisions?”
The research question is twofold and is explored in terms of both the degree to which the sustainability strategy influences decisions, and whether employees' attitudes towards sustainability influence decisions. To answer this, the study employs empirical research with both quantitative and qualitative methods.
The study shows that the sustainability strategy influences decisions made in daily operations. However, there are several other factors that also play a role. Compliance with the sustainability strategy is, among other factors, affected by goal conflicts between economic and sustainability considerations, lack of competence, weak leadership commitment, and the absence of effective management systems. Goal conflicts between economic and sustainability priorities are the most significant factor contributing to the strategy being set aside.
The findings indicate that the lack of formalization of sustainability work results in decisions being influenced by individual employees' attitudes and the commitment of managers, making the implementation of the sustainability strategy person-dependent. The findings suggest that the Norwegian Public Roads Administration (Statens vegvesen) has potential for improvement in the operationalization of the sustainability strategy, especially when it comes to formalization of sustainability work
When Decisions Must be Based on Partial Causal Knowledge: Analyzing Causality and Evidence for Health Policy
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Environmental and human health risk assessment of the mites Acarus siro and Suidasia pontifica in the product POWERfood 3.0
Get PDFVKM has assessed the environmental and health risks associated with the use of the mites Acarus siro and Suidasia pontifica as feed for various predatory insects and mites. Background POWERFOOD 3.0 is used as feed for various predatory mites and predatory insects. Acarus siro, Suidasia pontifica, and Carpoglyphus lactis constitute the product. Carpoglyphus lactis has previously been assessed by VKM. VKM has now prepared an environmental and health risk assessment of A. siro and S. pontifica. Conclusions Acarus siro occurs naturally in Norway, and new introductions will most likely be able to establish and spread in Norway. Suidasia pontifica, on the other hand, has never been recorded in the wild in Norway, and its tropical origin suggests that it will not establish and spread in Norway. No records of negative effects of A. siro and S. pontifica on biodiversity were found. Several studies report allergies to mites, including the species in the product POWERFOOD 3.0. The likelihood of developing mite allergies after handling the product is therefore high. However, the likelihood of allergic reactions following consumption of plants treated with the product appears to be low. Regarding taxonomic challenges that may affect the risk assessment, VKM found out that A. siro can be mistaken for A. farris and A. immobilis. These species differ only slightly in development and ecology. From the limited available knowledge about their biology, these three species are expected to have similar effects on biodiversity and human health. There are no known problems with species identification for Suidasia pontifica. The taxonomic issue with this species is that much of the literature uses an invalid name; S. medanensis. The risk assessment is approved by VKM's Panel on Plant Health.Environmental and human health risk assessment of the mites Acarus siro and Suidasia pontifica in the product POWERfood 3.0publishedVersio
Reducing food waste: The role of yogurt appearance and package information across consumer segments
Get PDFIn recent years, the food industry has prioritized minimizing food waste and promoting sustainability. Surface whey is a common quality defect in yogurt that can occur during storage, but it does not necessarily indicate that yogurt is unfit for consumption. This study aimed to investigate the impact of package information regarding surface whey, and yogurt appearance on consumers' willingness to consume (WTC) yogurt before and after the best-before date. First, two focus groups (n = 16) were performed to qualitatively explore consumers purchasing habits, general knowledge of quality defects in yogurts, and their behavior regarding food waste; the results were used to design a quantitative study. Norwegian consumers (n = 298) participated in an online survey. Consumers assessed their WTC, based on photos and videos of eight yogurt samples, in a conjoint test with a 3 × 2 factorial design. Results revealed that date labels and yogurt appearance significantly influence consumers' WTC yogurts, while package information had no significant effect. Consumers were segmented based on safety and quality concerns; hierarchical clustering showed two clusters. One concerned cluster, characterized by higher safety- and quality concerns, showed lower WTC yogurt past its best-before date compared to a less concerned cluster. The findings suggest that strategies to reduce food waste should prioritize encouraging companies to extend the shelf life of products and to reconsider any dates that might be overly cautious. Educating consumers about product quality beyond date labels rather than relying solely on package instructions, is also vital.publishedVersio
Gjenbruk av gråvann: Et tre-trinns gråvannsrenseanlegg med fokus på trygg distribusjon og virusfjerning
Get PDFI underkant av 15 % av den norske befolkningen er i dag tilknyttet private, mindre
avløpsrenseanlegg. Ved separering av svartvann og gråvann vil det være mulig å gjenbruke
ressursene i vannet ved lokal rensing. Slike sirkulære systemer vil på sikt kunne spare samfunnet
for store inngrep i naturen, punktutslipp av avløpsvann og høye kostnader ved utbygging av nye
vann- og avløpssystemer, samt bidra til landets vann- og matsikkerhet.
I denne masteroppgaven testes renseeffekten til et kompakt tre-trinns gråvannsrenseanlegg, som
består av et biologisk luftet filter (BAF), en adsorpsjonskolonne med granulert aktivt karbon og
polonitt og til slutt en ultrafiltreringsmembran. For å teste effekten av anlegget ble det tatt
analyser av blant annet pH, konduktivitet, E. coli og koliforme bakterier. Verdiene for det
rensede gråvannet fra disse analysene lå innenfor drikkevannsforskriften grenseverdi. Verdien
for turbiditet lå innenfor anbefalt grenseverdi fra Mattilsynet, og konsentrasjonene av organisk
stoff målt i form av KOF, TS og gløderest, var lavt i det rensede gråvannet. Analyser av Kimtall
36 ⁰C, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, og virus ved bruk av modellviruset S.t.28b, viste at det var
nødvendig med et desinfeksjonstrinn etter gråvannsrenseanlegget. Det ble observert en svak
kloakklukt i det rensede gråvannet, og samtidig påvist forekomsten av H2S-gass. Dette kan
skyldes mangel på lufting på grunn av at ultrafiltreringsmembranen var overdimensjonert. Denne
lukten kan redusere aksepten for gjenbruk av gråvann hos befolkningen.
Effekten av forskjellige konsentrasjoner (2, 5 og 20 ppm) av desinfeksjonsvæsken Eco
Desinaqua ble testet for Kimtall 36 ⁰C, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, tilsatt virus ved bruk av
modellviruset S.t.28b og mot begroing av biofilm i et simulert distribusjonsnettverk. Fra disse
analysene i tillegg til standardparameterne ble det konkludert med at det rensede gråvannet kan
beregnes som helsemessig trygt å gjenbruke som bruksvann, ved tilsetting av en
desinfeksjonsdose på 20 ppm. Det ble også foretatt en kvantitativ mikrobiell risikovurdering
(QMRA), som bekrefter dette, ved et hypotetisk tilfelle der to var infisert av rotavirus i et
boligområde med kildeseparering og gjenbruk av gråvann. Analysen viste at den akseptable
risikoen for gjenbruk av det rensede gråvann som bruksvann ble kun oppfylt etter en
desinfeksjonsdose på 20 ppm.Just under 15% of the Norwegian population is currently connected to private, small-scale
wastewater treatment systems. By separating blackwater and greywater, it becomes possible to
reuse the resources in the water through local treatment. Such circular systems could, in the long
term, save society from major environmental disruptions, point-source pollution from
wastewater, and the high costs associated with developing new water and sewage infrastructure,
while also contributing to national water and food security.
This master's thesis tests the treatment efficiency of a compact three-stage greywater treatment
system, consisting of a biologically aerated filter (BAF), an adsorption column with granular
activated carbon and Polonite, and finally an ultrafiltration membrane. To evaluate the system's
performance, analyses were conducted on parameters such as pH, conductivity, E. coli, and
coliform bacteria. The values for the treated greywater from these analyses were within the
threshold limits of the Norwegian drinking water regulations. The turbidity value were within the
recommended limit set by the Norwegian Food Safety Authority, and the concentrations of
organic matter measured as COD, total solids (TS), and ignition residue were low in the treated
greywater. Analyses of heterotrophic plate count at 36°C, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and viruses
using the model virus S.t.28b showed that a disinfection step was necessary after the greywater
treatment system. A slight sewage odor was observed in the treated greywater, along with the
detection of H₂S gas. This may be due to insufficient aeration caused by the oversized
ultrafiltration membrane. This odor could reduce public acceptance of greywater reuse.
The effect of different concentrations (2, 5, and 20 ppm) of the disinfectant Eco Desinaqua was
tested against heterotrophic plate count at 36°C, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, added virus using the
model virus S.t.28b, and biofilm growth in a simulated distribution network. Based on these
analyses and standard parameters, it was concluded that the treated greywater can be considered
safe for reuse as non-potable water when a disinfection dose of 20 ppm is applied. A quantitative
microbial risk assessment (QMRA) was also conducted, confirming this conclusion in a
hypothetical scenario where two individuals were infected with rotavirus in a residential area
with source separation and greywater reuse. The analysis showed that the acceptable risk level
for reuse of the treated greywater as non-potable water was only met after a disinfection dose of
20 ppm
Untargeted Metabolomics Workflow for Black Soldier Fly Larvae Hemolymph to study Effects of Deoxynivalenol Exposure
Get PDFThe metabolism of an organism reflects its physiological responses to environmental chal- lenges and nutrient availability. Thus, information about the current state and potential changes due to internal or external effects can be gained by investigating the metabolite profiles of target tissues. In the present study, untargeted high-performance liquid chro- matography high-resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC-HRMS) was used in an untargeted approach with the aim of determining physiological modifications in Black Soldier Fly Lar- vae (BSFL) that had been chronically exposed to a high level of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) in feed. BSFL are known for their ability to survive in contaminated environments and to tolerate dietary exposure to toxic substances. Their fast growth, high content of proteins and lipids and ability to thrive on organic wastes have made them particularly interesting in the context of circular bioeconomy and sustainable feed production. However, before BSFL can be reared on contaminated feedingstuff and subsequently used in livestock feed, their ability to adapt their metabolism to toxic challenges has to be explored. This study has therefore investigated how dietary exposure to the DON, the most prevalent mycotoxin in grain in Europe, influences the systemic metabolome of BSFL during their most intensive growing period at days 7 to 15 after hatching. By analyzing the hemolymph of unexposed controls and DON-fed larvae using HPLC-HRMS, toxin-related changes in the metabolite profiles were monitored. To this purpose, a comprehensive analysis pipeline was developed, including optimized sample preparation, data normalization, transformation, scaling, and multivariate statistical modeling. This framework allowed for the detection of even small but statistically significant metabolic changes.
While DON exposure did not result in observable phenotypic impairment of the BSFL, the metabolomic profiling revealed distinct, time-dependent shifts in the metabolic composi- tion, particularly after day 11. Principal component analysis, linear mixed-effects models, and OPLS-DA demonstrated that treatment effects became more pronounced at later stages, supporting the idea of an adaptive response. These findings aligned with the growing evidence that BSFL exhibit physiological mechanisms—either intrinsic or microbially sup- ported—for mitigating DON toxicity. The study contributes new insights into the resilience of BSFL under toxic challenge and highlights their suitability for processing low-quality, mycotoxin-contaminated biomass. Future studies should aim to integrate microbiome data and tissue-specific metabolomics to better understand the detoxification in BSFL
Ser du skogen for bare trær? - En studie av naturkompenserende arealplanføringer blant kommuner i Søndre Akershus
Get PDFDette forskningsarbeidet utforsker hvordan naturkompenserende arealplanføringer oppfattes av by- og regionplanleggere i utvalgte kommuner i Akershus fylke. Studiets fokus er på hvordan disse personene forstår det kulturelle innholdet i konseptet «natur», og hvordan man forsøker å skåne naturen mot nedbygging i arealplaner.
Tematikken utforskes utfra hvordan informanter ser seg selv i
kontekst av overordnede myndigheter, og sine respektive
kommuners ressursgrunnlag.The paper explores how nature-based planning concepts are
viewed by municipal land use planners in selected
municipalities in Akershus county. The focus of the study is
aimed at how these planners understand the cultural content
in the concept of “nature”, and how this understanding is
applied in the goal to preserve nature against land use changes
in planning processes. The exploration of the topic has a basis
in the informants understanding of themselves, in the context
of their respective municipality’s available resources and their
relationship with higher-level authorities
Machine Learning Models For Biomass Prediction Using RGB and Multispectral Imagery: A Comparative Study
Get PDFThis thesis investigates the potential of RGB-based machine learning models as cost-effective alternatives to multispectral imagery for estimating above-ground biomass (AGB) using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) imagery. Biomass estimation enhances crop management, yield improvement, and sustainable agricultural practices. Traditionally, multispectral sensors have been preferred for their detailed spectral capabilities, but their high cost and complexity restrict extensive usage. In contrast, RGB cameras are affordable, widely available, and easier to deploy, though their spectral limitations might compromise detailed vegetation analyses.
This study assessed the trade-off by training four deep learning models: CNN Simple, CNN Deep, UNet, and Vision Transformer (ViT). A unified training pipeline was developed to streamline data preprocessing, model selection, and evaluation. These models were used to predict the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), which served as a proxy for biomass. The dataset consisted of UAV-acquired RGB images from two crops, milheto (pearl millet) and soja (soybean), with ground truth NDVI maps derived from multispectral data. Model performance was evaluated using Mean Squared Error (MSE), Mean Absolute Error (MAE), and the Coefficient of Determination (R²), complemented by visual inspection of the predicted NDVI maps.
All models produced viable biomass estimates using RGB input alone. The ViT model achieved the highest accuracy on the Milheto dataset (MSE = 0.0039, MAE = 0.0414, R² = 0.8724), demonstrating excellent spatial consistency but requiring extensive computational resources. On the Soja dataset, the CNN Deep model performed best (MSE = 0.0104, MAE = 0.0754, R² = 0.8896), striking an optimal balance between accuracy and efficiency. Visual analyses reinforced these findings, with ViT delivering the most detailed NDVI predictions, while CNN-based models showed clear advantages in speed and memory usage. Overall, prediction errors were consistently low across models, confirming the reliability of RGB-based biomass estimation.
These results confirm that RGB-based models can offer practical and scalable solutions for biomass prediction, especially where cost or deployment constraints rule out multispectral sensors. Future work should explore broader crop diversity, develop RGB-specific vegetation indices, and integrate lightweight models into operational UAV platforms for real-time agricultural monitoring