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Trophic Interactions Are Key to Understanding the Effects of Global Change on the Distribution and Functional Role of the Brown Bear
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Risk of Somatic Diagnoses in Specialist Health Care Among Norwegian-Born Youth and Young Adults with Immigrant Parents
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Ulikhetens åkre : om makt i mat- og landbrukssystemer
Full text linkFood and agrarian systems are increasingly narrated as broken and failing in political, academic, and public debates around the world. Among the failings is the continuously skewed distribution of food and socio-economic benefits associated with activities along the food value chain. Distributional imbalances in food and agrarian systems can be attributed to the dynamics and dealings of power that shape inequitable – unfair and unjust – outcomes of these systems, making them deeply political in nature. Continuously missing or misrecognizing inequities in food and agrarian systems, rising efforts to make equitable and sustainable changes fail to connect to livelihoods of marginalized actors, such as migrant agri-food workers. Such failures warrant the engagement of this thesis with the relationship between inequities and food and agriculture, namely its exploration of inequity and the dealings of power that yield it in and through food and agrarian systems.
Migrant agri-food workers are essential to the production of food in high-income countries. However, characterized by low wages, poor living and laboring conditions, and lack of access to rights, they continuously occupy the marginal end of inequitable food and agrarian systems in these countries. The same is true in Norway, although migrant workers laboring on Norwegian farms might be seen as relatively privileged subjects in contrast to their counterparts working on farms elsewhere in the Global North. This is so, as the Norwegian context is defined by strong labor market regulations (although these may not always be upheld), reliance on legal immigration for contracting agri-food labor from abroad, and an agricultural model based on small-scale farmer well-being supported by state subsidies and import tariffs. This contrasts with characterizations of inequitable migrant agri-food worker realities as hinging, often in intersecting ways, on poor labor regulations, punitive migration regimes, and economies across scales, squeezing farmers to depend on cheap and cheapening labor. As an ‘unspectacular’ case, Norway and migrant agri-food workers on Norwegian berry farms are seen in this thesis to present a context that may offer important insights that cut across the overarching dual research aim: first, to inform the possibility of food and agrarian systems to become more equitable, and second, to enhance the understanding of how political conditions shaping both food and global orders come to find significance.
In pursuit of its overarching research aims, this thesis centers its analysis on inequities – power-bound inequalities conceptualized as power-dealings – as diversely known, engaged and embodied by, among others, migrant agri-food workers in Norway, and enacted into being on Norwegian berry farms. Such analytics are leveraged against discursive, hierarchical, and ‘everyday’ approaches to power that form the theoretical foundations of this thesis. To access inequities – power-dealings – the thesis empirically focuses on the embeddedness of equity concerns in different discourses of food systems change, symbolic negotiations and affective experiences of marginality pertaining to migrant agri-food workers in Norway, and mundane everyday practices and narratives defining the life of migrant agri-food workers on Norwegian berry farms. This is done by drawing on document analysis performed in 2021 – 2023 and on ethnographically inspired fieldwork undertaken on four Norwegian berry farms in 2021 – 2022.
Structured around three articles, each guided by theoretically informed research questions, this thesis first, illuminates the relationship between discursive, hierarchical, and ‘everyday’ dealings of power and food and agrarian systems, namely as negatively implicating the realities of migrant agri-food workers across sites and scales, including in relatively privileged settings such as Norway. Second, this thesis highlights inequity (as an object of thought), migrant agri-food worker marginality on Norwegian berry farms, and mundane everyday practices and narratives in the sphere of agri-food labor, not only as exemplary of inequitable realities defining food and agri-food, but also as reality-making – as forming unconscious, micro, and mundane conditions which ground dealings of power in and through food and agrarian systems. These overall findings are, further, argued to provide an understanding of inequities in
Norwegian food and agrarian systems as trivial troubles, urged to be reckoned with in scholarship and practice to both deepen knowledge about inequities in these systems and to inform more equitable policy directions going forward.Mat- og landbrukssystemer blir i økende grad beskrevet som dysfunksjonelle i politiske, akademiske og offentlige debatter verden over. Blant utfordringene er den skjeve fordelingen av mat og sosio-økonomiske fordeler knyttet til aktiviteter langs matverdikjeden. Fordelingsmessige ubalanser i mat- og landbrukssystemer kan tilskrives dynamikk og maktforhold som fører med seg urettferdige resultater som kan sies å ha opphav i politiske forhold. Det at ulikheter i mat- og landbrukssystemer overses eller misforstås, gjør at forsøk på å skape rettferdige og bærekraftige endringer mislykkes i å bedre levevilkårene til marginaliserte aktører, som migrantarbeidere i mat- og landbrukssektoren. Slike utfordringer danner grunnlaget for denne avhandlingen som adresserer ulikheter og maktforhold i mat- og landbrukssystemer
Utdanningsresultater for elever i barneskolen i Afrika : med fokus på barn med nedsatt funksjonsevne
Full text linkThis doctoral dissertation addresses the critical issue of educational inequality for children with disabilities, a group often marginalized in educational systems, by examining school enrollment and learning outcomes for children with disabilities (CWD) in selected African countries, compared to children without disabilities (CWOD). Utilizing data from the Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) conducted in 12 African countries and a project survey among schoolchildren in Ghana and Niger, the research explores differences in school access and skill acquisition. It also investigates the influence of contextual factors such as gender, sibling roles, family socioeconomic status, and national educational development.
The study highlights the generally low levels of basic educational skills in the selected African countries, along with significant disparities in school access and learning outcomes among children with disabilities. It contributes to a more nuanced understanding of the diverse challenges faced by children with different types of disabilities in accessing education and acquiring skills. Furthermore, it underscores the critical importance of examining how disability intersects with environmental factors, such as country-level improvements in skill acquisition and personal and local contextual factors, including socioeconomic development and gender. This analysis calls for targeted policy interventions and robust support systems to address the specific and multifaceted challenges faced by children with various types of disabilities.Denne doktorgradsavhandlingen undersøker skoleinnmelding og læringsutbytte for barn med funksjonsnedsettelser (CWD) i utvalgte afrikanske land, sammenlignet med barn uten funksjonsnedsettelser (CWOD). Basert på data fra Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) gjennomført i 12 afrikanske land og en prosjektundersøkelse blant skolebarn i Ghana og Niger, analyserer denne studien ulikheter i skoletilgang og ferdighetslæring. Studien undersøker videre påvirkningen av kontekstuelle faktorer, inkludert kjønn, søskenroller, familiens sosioøkonomiske status og et lands makronivå innen utdanningsutvikling.publishedVersio
Norske forbrukeres aksept for bærekraftige kostholdsalternativer
Full text linkThis thesis focuses on sustainable food consumption, consumer behaviour and food choice and contains four papers. The first paper uses data from an online survey conducted in Norway and the three remaining papers use data from a repeated cross-sectional Norwegian survey. Specifically, the papers investigate the consumer acceptance of sustainable diets among Norwegian consumers.
The first paper investigates the factors affecting dietary sustainability with a focus on preference for domestic foods and its relation to consumption of red and white meat, fish and plant-based foods and self-identification as a meat reducer. The paper also investigates the role of environmental and health attitudes. Preference for domestic food is associated with lower likelihood of consuming plant-based food and higher consumption of red meat. Health concern is associated with high white meat and fish consumption and environmental concern with a higher likelihood of consuming plant-based foods and identifying as a meat reducer.
The second paper investigates the consumer acceptance of cultured meat. It examines the effects of trust, food choice motives and socioeconomic factors, on the willingness to try cultured meat. The paper also investigates changes in the importance of the determinants over time. No significant changes over time are found. Social trust and support for green parties are positively associated with being willing to try cultured meat and trust in food authorities is negatively associated with being unwilling to try. Emphasizing the environment, health, novelty and price are also positively associated with being willing to try while emphasizing naturalness and safety has a negative association. Being younger, higher educated and living in an urban area has a positive association with being willing to try cultured meat while being female, religious and vegetarian has a negative association.
The third paper evaluates the consumer acceptance of food made from insects. It investigates the effect of trust, food choice motives and the big five personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism (OCEAN)) on the willingness to try food made from insects. Furthermore, the paper examines the mediating role of safety concerns and the moderating role of sociodemographic factors. Social trust, trust in food authorities and emphasis on the environment, health and novelty are positively associated with willingness to try while emphasizing naturalness and safety has a negative association. Safety concern is also a significant mediator. For personality traits, openness is positively associated with willingness to try food made from insects while conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness have a negative association. Gender, education, age and urban living moderate some paths.
The fourth paper delves into the consumer acceptance of plant-based meat analogues (PBMA). It investigates the effect of food choice motives and socioeconomic factors on the consumption of PBMA. The paper also investigates changes in the importance of determinants of PBMA consumption over time. Emphasizing the environment, animal welfare, and novelty were positively associated with PBMA consumption while emphasizing familiarity and Norwegian origin were negatively associated. Younger, higher educated, urban, and vegetarian respondents were more likely to consume PBMA. Use of social media had a positive effect on the consumption, for the total sample but not on each survey round. A declining effect of social media is found. The findings of the four papers identify important factors affecting consumers’ food choice behaviour. Moreover, they identify potential drivers and barriers towards the uptake of more sustainable dietary alternatives. These results also highlight the similarities and differences in consumers’ preferences for different meat alternatives which could be useful for marketing and policy recommendations.Denne avhandlingen fokuserer på bærekraftig matforbruk, forbrukeratferd og matvalg og inneholder fire artikler. Den første artikkelen bruker data fra en spørreundersøkelse gjennomført i Norge, mens de tre resterende artiklene bruker data fra gjentatte spørreundersøkelser i Norge. Spesifikt undersøker artiklene aksept for bærekraftige kosthold blant norske forbrukere.
I den første artikkelen undersøkes faktorer som påvirker bærekraftig kosthold, med fokus på preferanser for norskprodusert mat og forbruk av rødt og hvitt kjøtt, fisk og plantebasert mat og selvidentifikasjon som en som reduserer kjøttforbruket (veganer, vegetarianer eller flexitarian). Artikkelen undersøker også betydningen helse og miljø har på bærekraftig kosthold. . Preferanse for norskprodusert mat henger sammen med lavere sannsynlighet for å spise plantebasert mat og et høyere forbruk av rødt kjøtt. Helsebekymring er knyttet til høyt forbruk av hvitt kjøtt og fisk, mens miljøbekymringer har sammenheng med høyere sannsynlighet for å konsumere plantebasert mat samt reduksjon i kjøttforbruket.
Den andre artikkelen handler om forbrukeraksept for laboratoriedyrket kunstig kjøtt. I den artikkelen analyseres effektene av tillit, motivasjon og sosioøkonomiske faktorer på villighet til å prøve kunstig kjøtt. Artikkelen undersøker også endringer i betydningen av disse faktorene over tid, men finner ingen signifikante endringer. Høy sosial tillit og støtte til grønne partier indikerer villighet til å prøve laboratoriedyrket kjøtt mens mens tillit til matmyndigheter indikerer mindre uvillighet. Vektlegging av miljø, helse, nyhet og pris er positivt assosiert med økt villighet, mens vektlegging av naturlighet og sikkerhet er negativt assosiert. Yngre, høyere utdannede og urbane forbrukere er mer villige til å prøve, mens kvinner, religiøse og vegetarianere er mindre villige.
Den tredje artikkelen handler om forbrukeraksept for mat laget av insekter. Den handler om effekten av tillit, motivasjon og personlighetstrekk på villighet til å prøve insektbasert mat. Videre analyserer artikkelen om matsikkerhetsbekymringer medierer relasjonen mellom tillit og villighet til å prøve insektbasert mat samt om sosiodemografiske faktorer har en modererende relasjon. Sosial tillit og tillit til matmyndigheter er positivt assosiert med villighet. Vektlegging av miljø, helse og nyhet indikere mer villighet mens vektlegging av naturlighet og matsikkerhet mindre villighet. Matsikkerhetsbekymringer medierer relasjonen mellom tillit og villighet til å prøve insektbasert mat. Høy åpenhet indikere mer villighet, mens planmessighet, ekstroversjon og medmenneskelighet har en negativ sammenheng. Kjønn, utdanning, alder og urbant miljø modererer relasjon mellom villighet til å prøve insektbasert og noen variabler.
Den fjerde artikkelen utforsker forbrukeraksept for plantebaserte kjøtterstatninger. Den undersøker effekten av motivasjonsfaktorer og sosioøkonomiske faktorer på forbruket av plantebaserte kjøtterstatninger. Artikkelen undersøker også endringer i betydningen av disse faktorene over tid . Vektlegging av miljø, dyrevelferd og nyhet var positivt relatert med forbruk av plantebaserte kjøtterstatninger, mens vektlegging av kjennskap og norsk opprinnelse var negativt relatert Vegetarianere, yngre, høyere utdannede og urbane respondenter var mer tilbøyelige til å konsumere plantebaserte kjøtterstatninger. Bruk av sosiale medier hadde en positiv effekt på hele utvalget men ikke på hver enkelt undersøkelsesrunde. Over tid var det en nedgang i effekten av sosiale medier.
Funnene fra de fire artiklene identifiserer viktige faktorer som påvirker forbrukernes matvalg. Videre fremhever de mulige drivere og barrierer for en overgang til mer bærekraftige kostholdsalternativer. Resultatene belyser også likheter og forskjeller mellom forbrukernes preferanser for ulike alternativer til kjøtt, noe som er nyttig for markedsføring og politiske anbefalinger
Redeveloping the Post-industrial Christianssand Brewery Site An Act of Repair - Brewed on History
No full textThis master’s thesis investigates the long term redevelopment of the post-industrial Christianssand Brewery (CB) site in the Grim district of Kristiansand, Norway. Once home to a brewery and a cultivated garden shaped by the Grimsbekken stream, the site has over time become dominated by asphalt, fences, and short term commercial uses. Through the concept Brewed on History, this thesis explores on what premises the post-industrial site can be redeveloped into a ecologically functional, culturally and connected urban space.
The work is structured around two main research questions: (1) Which guiding principles should form the basis for the redevelopment of the post-industrial CB site? and (2) How can the CB site take shape based on these premises? To answer these, the thesis combines a theoretical foundation in post-industrial landscape transformation and ecological reparation with a detailed site analysis grounded in historical research, document studies, literature review, seasonal site surveys, and community engagement. Special emphasis is placed on the buried Grimsbekken stream, once central to the site’s landscape character, and now seen as a key opportunity for ecological repairation.
The case analysis identifies three overarching design premises: Ecological Reparation, Strengthening Grim District, and Connections and Accessibility. These premises guide the conceptual design proposal in Part 4, which presents three focus areas within the site: the reopening of Grimsbekken, the redevelopment of “The Brewery Garden” as a cultural and residential area, and the creation of a Connecting Path that links Grim to the city center. The design proposes ecological corridors, and social meeting places rooted in local identity and history. By reintroducing nature-based solutions and respecting existing uses such as the kindergarten, climbing hall, and microbrewery, the design balances redevelopment with continuity.
The thesis concludes that post-industrial landscapes like the CB site hold great potential for urban redevelopment when approached with ecological repairation, and historical awareness. It argues that long term redevelopment must acknowledge past ecological and social disruptions while offering strategies that reconnect people with place, restore natural systems, and foster inclusive urban life
Fra motiv og penselstrøk til dagens landskap. Utviklingen av en sammenhengende strandpromenade i Åsgårdstrand med utgangspunkt i kulturhistorie og stedsidentitet. En mulighetsstudie.
No full textTransformasjon av havnefronter har i stor grad funnet sted i større byer, der tidligere industriområder er transformert til nye formål som boliger, næring og rekreasjon. I mindre byer og tettsteder har slike prosesser vært mer begrenset, både økonomisk og på grunn av områdenes mindre skala.
Likevel er havnefronten et sentralt byrom som kobler byen og havet, og som kan gi rom for sosiale møter og rekreasjon. Derfor har også mindre byer og tettsteder behov for god tilrettelegging og utvikling av havnefrontene.
Åsgårdstrand har sterke kulturhistoriske kvaliteter, med en historie som bade- og feriested og en kunstnerisk arv knyttet til Edvard Munch, som hentet inspirasjon fra stedets landskap.
I dag preges havna av parkeringsplasser, fragmenterte byrom, dårlig tilgjengelighet og manglende forbindelser mellom sentrale rekreasjonsområder. Området er hovedsakelig tilrettelagt for bil- og båttrafikk, med få kvaliteter for myke trafikanter og lite rom for opphold.
Den omfattende utbyggingen av havna har ført til at mange av de kulturhistoriske elementene som var motiver i Munchs kunst, har gått tapt eller blitt glemt i dagens landskap.
De sentrale byrommene i havna, som Badeparken – byens største offentlige grøntområde – fremstår isolert snarere enn integrert i havneområdet.
Denne masteroppgaven undersøker hvordan en helhetlig strandpromenade kan forbedre tilgjengeligheten og styrke de kulturhistoriske, landskapsmessige og sosiale kvalitetene langs havnefronten i Åsgårdstrand.
Prosjektet fokuserer på tre nøkkelområder – Bøllerødvara, Havna, Badeparken og Søndre strand – som hver kan spille ulike roller i byens identitet som rekreasjons- og kultursted.
Gjennom en landskapsarkitektonisk tilnærming foreslås tiltak som kombinerer tilgjengelighet, funksjon og estetikk, inspirert av Munchs kunst og stedets historie.
Målet er å fremheve Åsgårdstrands karakter og kulturarv, samtidig som det skapes en sammenhengende, tilgjengelig og attraktiv strandpromenade for framtidig bruk og opplevelse.The transformation of waterfronts has primarily taken place in larger cities, where former industrial areas have been transformed for new purposes such as housing, commerce, and recreation. In smaller towns and settlements, such processes have been more limited, both economically and due to the smaller scale of these areas.
Nevertheless, the waterfront is a central urban space that connects the city to the sea, offering room for social interactions and recreation. Therefore, smaller towns and settlements also need proper planning and development of their waterfronts.
Åsgårdstrand possesses strong cultural-historical qualities, with a history as a bathing and holiday resort and an artistic heritage tied to Edvard Munch, who drew inspiration from the landscape of the area.
Today, the harbour is characterized by parking lots, fragmented urban spaces, poor accessibility, and a lack of connections between central recreational areas. The area is mainly designed for car and boat traffic, with few qualities for pedestrians and limited spaces for gatherings.
The extensive development of the harbour has led to many of the cultural-historical elements that were motifs in Munch’s art being lost or forgotten in the current landscape. The central urban spaces in the harbour, such as Badeparken – the city’s largest public green area – appear isolated rather than integrated into the waterfront area.
This master’s thesis explores how a coherent beach promenade can improve accessibility and enhance the cultural-historical, landscape, and social qualities along the waterfront in Åsgårdstrand.
The project focuses on three key areas – Bøllerødvara, Havna, Badeparken, and Søndre Strand – each of which can play different roles in the city’s identity as a recreational and cultural destination.
Through a landscape architectural approach, measures are proposed that combine accessibility, functionality, and aesthetics, inspired by Munch’s art and the site’s history.
The goal is to highlight Åsgårdstrand’s character and cultural heritage while creating a continuous, accessible, and attractive beach promenade for future use and experiences
Sex-Specific Vulnerability of Marine, Freshwater and Terrestrial Animals to Pollutants: A Meta-Analysis Study
Full text linkChemical pollution is ubiquitous and impacts animals across all realms, including marine, freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. However, chemical pollution can influence males and females differently, which could have consequences for populations, communities and ecosystems. To the best of my knowledge, no systematic reviews or meta-analyses have compared the differences between females and males on the effect of chemical pollution.
My aim was to explore sex-specific stress responses of exposed females and males. Using the Web of Science Core Collection I conducted a systematic search for relevant publications on this topic from 2010 to 2022. The search yielded 142 studies, and included sex-specific effects on species in different phyla and realms to chemical pollutants, such as pharmaceuticals, pesticides, flame retardants, and hydrocarbons. These studies were included in the systematic review. I quantified sex-specific differences in survival, LC50 (the concentration that kills 50% of the animal) and sex ratios following chemical exposure. I further investigated different underlying mechanisms, highlighting the different sensitivities between the sexes. Most studies were from the global North and China, with a majority of species from freshwater and marine realms, and the most common animals being a few species of fish, crustaceans, and molluscs. Using random-effects models, the results indicated females had higher survival, and tolerated higher concentrations of pollutants (LC50) than males. Overall, there was no change in sex ratio after exposure to pollutants. However, most studies had sex ratios significantly biased towards more females or males in the experiment compared to the control. Among the underlying mechanisms showcasing different sensitivities between females and males, different responses in gene expressions between the sexes had the highest frequency of sex-specific effects.
Overall, the results suggest that pooling the sexes in ecotoxicological studies may confound the results, also because stress responses that alter sex ratios are likely to have long-term consequences for population fitness. Therefore, sex-specific vulnerability to pollutants should be included in ecotoxicological studies whenever possible to improve ecological risk assessments
Can Small Marine Protected Areas Benefit the European Lobster (Homarus gammarus) in the Oslofjord?
Full text linkMarine protected areas (MPAs) have demonstrated their effectiveness as a conservation tool. The red listed European lobster, Homarus gammarus, has been under great pressure in the Oslofjord, due to extensive harvest. Therefore, two MPAs designated for lobsters were established to help restore the population. However, these MPAs are relatively small, and their ecological effects are not well documented due to their recent establishment (i.e. 2017 and 2021). Using a “before-after control-impact” study approach (BACI), lobsters from the two MPAs in the Oslofjord, Drøbak and the Inner Fjord, were surveyed. Catch per unit effort (CPUE) was calculated and total length and sex were recorded. The study revealed that the MPAs had a positive effect on both CPUE and total length. CPUE approximately doubled in Drøbak two years post-protection, and lobsters had an average increase of 2 cm in both areas. Before protection the Inner Fjord had a higher proportion of females while Drøbak had a higher proportion of males. After protection, the Inner Fjord had an increase of males, while the proportion of males remained stable in Drøbak. The results indicate that small MPAs have a positive effect on CPUE and total length but also highlight differences in sex ratio between MPAs
A review on the use of Interleukin 2 and 12 as treatment for canine melanoma, osteosarcoma, and mast cell tumours
Full text linkLitteraturstudie 2025Melanom, osteosarkom og mastcelletumor er viktige kreftformer hos hund. De tradisjonelle behandlingspilarene: kirurgi, strålingsterapi og kjemoterapi; gir per i dag ikke tilfredsstillende resultater. Derfor har immunterapi blitt sett på som en mulig fjerde pilar innen kreftbehandling. Kreft har mange metoder for å unngå immunsystemet. Derfor har cytokiner blitt undersøkt på grunn av deres evne til å regulere immunrespons, og potensial for å rette immunsystemet mot tumorcellene. Cytokinbehandling er derimot ikke problemfritt, da de terapeutiske dosene nødvendig, gir unødvendig mange bivirkninger.
I denne litteraturstudien undersøkes bruken av IL-2 og IL-12 på melanom, osteosarkom og mastcelletumor hos hund; der det blir sett på ulike interleukinformuleringer, administrasjonsmetoder, behandlingsregimer, antitumoreffekt og uønskede virkninger. Det ble gjennomgått 13 artikler fordelt på kreftformene, som brukte IL-2 og/ eller IL-12 i ulike behandlingsregimer.
Det er ikke mulig å konkludere med bruken av cytokiner til kreftbehandling, verken på tvers av cytokiner eller kreftformer, men potensialet er lovende. Det er behov for mer forskning på feltet, for optimalisering av behandlingsregimer. Det trengs også studier med større studieutvalg for bedre statistisk grunnlag. Selv om det ikke er mulig å dra en definitiv konklusjon, kan cytokiner ha en lovende rolle som adjuvans til kreftbehandlingsregimer for hunder med melanom, osteosarkom og mastcelletumor.Melanoma, osteosarcoma and mast cell tumours are important canine cancers. The traditional pillars of treatment: surgery, radiation and chemotherapy; do not, as of today, yield satisfying results. Immunotherapy has therefore been recognized as a possible fourth pillar. Cancer has many methods for evading the immune system. Cytokines have therefore been researched, because of their ability to regulate immune responses, and potentially direct the immune system against tumour cells. However, cytokine treatment is not flawless; the necessary therapeutic doses result in unnecessary adverse effects.
This review examines the use of IL-2 and IL-12 on canine melanoma, osteosarcoma and mast cell tumours, assessing different interleukin formulations, methods of administration, treatment protocols, anti-tumour effect, and adverse events.
13 articles on the different cancer types and cytokines, used in different treatment protocols, were reviewed.
Definitive conclusions cannot be made; neither across different cytokines nor cancer types, though the potential remains promising. Additional studies are needed for optimization of treatment protocols. There is also a need for studies with a larger study population, for better statistical basis. Although definitive conclusions cannot be drawn, cytokines may have a promising role as an adjuvant for cancer treatment protocols for canine melanoma, osteosarcoma and mast cell tumours.VE