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Renyin Disaster (1901–1903) in Guangxi Province and the “American Relief Expedition”
Get PDFThe civil disturbances caused by secret societies and discharged military veterans of Guangxi Province from the end of the 19th century into the beginning of the 20th century were further exacerbated by natural disasters, especially the flood and famine from 1901 to 1903. Although much research has paid special attention to these Guangxi civil disturbances to date, the aspect of relief efforts by foreign Protestant missionary societies has not been sufficiently covered. For this reason, the present article attempts to clarify whether or not the disaster relief activities, which were carried out by the Christian and Missionary Alliance (CMA) in Guangxi Province, and by Robert McWade, a Consul General of the United States at Guangzhou, affected the civil disturbances.
The author begins by summarizing the actual conditions surrounding the disturbances based on the research to date and the available primary sources, in order to confirm a relationship between civil disturbances and the Renyin Disasters. Next, he describes the famine relief efforts conducted in 1903 by the missionaries of the CMA and McWade’s “American Relief Expedition” funded by private voluntary contributions from the United States; then sums up the influence exerted by relief efforts on the evangelical activities of the CMA in Guangxi Province, in general, while focusing specifically on the relationship between famine relief, touted as “humanitarian service” in the US, and the simultaneous efforts by the Cen Chunxuan, the Viceroy of Liangguang to suppress rebellion.
The above investigation has led the author to the following two discoveries. First, regarding the relationship between disaster relief and Protestant evangelical activities, as already shown in the existing research, the contribution of the humanitarian efforts carried out by the missionaries of the CMA and diplomats in the midst of the Renyin Disasters can be confirmed. On the other hand, it is also clear that the evangelical efforts conducted by McWade’s “Expedition” met with every possible impediment because of the oppositions on the part of local elites. Secondly, due to the intervention of Chinese authorities, the relief campaign was incorporated into the counterinsurgency operations. In more general terms, the author’s results demonstrate the necessity of further studying the relationships between internationally organized relief campaigns and intervention in such efforts by Chinese local authorities.journal articl
The Governance of Māzandarān under the Timurid Dynasty
Get PDFDue to a dearth of historiographical sources, the analysis of local potentates under the Timurid Dynasty (1370–1507) has been lacking. In the present article, the author takes up the case of one of those potentates, the Mar'ashīs, who set up a Sayyid political regime in the region of Mazandaran on the Caspian Sea in present day northern Iran and compares it with the Badakhshān regime, based on the Timurid chronicles and a local histoty entitled, Tārīkh-i Tabaristān wa Rūyān wa Māzandarān.
After his conquest of Māzandarān, Tīmūr (r. 1370–1402) appointed two military figures based in Khurāsān as the governors (dārūgha) of Sārī and Āmul. However, since both dārūghas continued to maintain relations with their bases, Tīmūr attempted to limit their power by demanding military service and political hostages. When the dārūghas rebelled, the Timurids switched to indirect control over Mazandaran through the Mar'ashīs.
With the establishment of the 'Alī Sārī regime in 1411/12, the Timurids ordered the Mar'ashīs to submit taxes, although at that point in time Māzandarān was still attempting to recover from the Timurid invasion and thus in no financial position to take on additional tax burdens. After the death of 'Alī Sārī in 1418, the Timurids took advantage of the resulting conflict and division among the Mar'ashīs to raise silk taxes through the promises of local rule to the highest bidder, who turned out to be Murtad ̣ ā. Then provisions pertaining to the taxation of Māzandarān were determined, and these rules would be followed by all succeeding amirs of the Timurid Dynasty. While the Timurid authorities did grant the Mar'ashīs a certain amount of autonomy regarding the administration of their regime and religious affairs, tax collection never wavered on the crucial economic resource of Māzandarān silk.
In his comparison of Māzandarān and Badakhshān governance, the author finds similarities between the two concerning frequency of taxation, destinations of taxation, dispatch of tax collectors and military service, while noting a difference in the political status enjoyed by the two regimes at the Timurid court, stemming from the fact of the Badakhshan regime being formed later than the Mar'ashīs', thus resulting in the former's lower status.journal articl
