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Understanding Teenage Suicide from a Psychological Discipline
No full textAccording to Kumari and Masih (2019), suicide is defined as “the act of ending one’s life”. Suicide is a devastating and lethal action to take when one has become hopeless and feels that there’s no reason to be living. Suicide is even more heart-breaking when a teenager decides to make the fatal choice to terminate their life. Committing suicide and having suicidal ideations have become popular acts for teenagers today. According to Bridge, Goldstein, and Brent (2006), suicidal ideation is defined as the “thoughts of killing or harming oneself”. Unfortunately, teenage suicide is becoming more prevalent in all parts of the world. This poses various questions such as “why,” “what happened,” and “what did we miss”? It would be ideal to understand the different factors that lead teenagers to take the lethal decision to end their life. Many teenagers go through a lot of psychological changes during their adolescent years and these changes can lead to various psychological issues that result in causing factors of attempting suicide, having suicidal ideations, and committing suicide. When a teenager attempts or commits suicide, their actions severely affect everyone within their lives including their parents, friends, and other loved ones.Research Project
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Understanding Teenage Suicide from a Psychological Discipline
Margareth Ojetola
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Understanding Teenage Suicide from a Psychological Discipline
Introduction
According to Kumari and Masih (2019), suicide is defined as “the act of ending one’s
life”. Suicide is a devastating and lethal action to take when one has become hopeless and feels
that there’s no reason to be living. Suicide is even more heart-breaking when a teenager decides
to make the fatal choice to terminate their life. Committing suicide and having suicidal ideations
have become popular acts for teenagers today. According to Bridge, Goldstein, and Brent (2006),
suicidal ideation is defined as the “thoughts of killing or harming oneself”. Unfortunately,
teenage suicide is becoming more prevalent in all parts of the world. This poses various
questions such as “why,” “what happened,” and “what did we miss”? It would be ideal to
understand the different factors that lead teenagers to take the lethal decision to end their life.
Many teenagers go through a lot of psychological changes during their adolescent years and
these changes can lead to various psychological issues that result in causing factors of attempting
suicide, having suicidal ideations, and committing suicide. When a teenager attempts or commits
suicide, their actions severely affect everyone within their lives including their parents, friends,
and other loved ones.
Psychological Factors that Lead to Suicide
According to the American Psychological Association (n.d.), psychology is the analysis
of the human mind and behavior. The discipline of psychology encompasses every component of
a human’s experience right from the tasks of the brain to the actions of various nations
(American Psychological Association, n.d.). Joshi and Kackar’s (2019) article discusses how the
teenage years are marked as the most challenging years within one’s entire human life. As much
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as there are genetic and biological factors of suicidality, psychological factors also play a big role
when it comes to a teenager committing suicide or having suicidal ideations.
According to Joshi and Kackar (2019), many studies have identified the psychological
construct of depression as a predecessor of teenage suicide. When teenagers fall into depression,
there are many underlying causes such as sadness, hopelessness, frustration, peer problems, poor
academic performances, perfectionism, sexual orientation, impulsivity, negative perceived self-images
and self-esteem, restlessness, substance abuse, and withdrawal from their family and
friends (Bridge, Goldstein, & Brent, 2006). Many of these factors cause adolescents to become
victims of clinical or major depression, ultimately causing some of them to commit suicide.
In their article review, Bridge, Goldstein, and Brent (2006) identify how teenage suicide
has proceeded to become a major global public health problem. It’s identified that suicide rates
constantly increase from childhood to adolescence mostly because of the pervasiveness of
psychopathology (mental illness) in adolescents (Bridge, Goldstein, & Brent, 2006). Various
studies have shown how mental disorders in adolescents such as eating disorders, bipolar
disorders, PTSD, anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and major depressive disorders contribute to
a teenager attempting and/or committing suicide (Bridge, Goldstein, & Brent, 2006). As the
adolescence stage comes with going through various developmental changes and experiencing
new things, the use of different substances (legal and/or illegal) is introduced. According to
Bridge, Goldstein, and Brent (2006), substance abuse, whether it’s alcohol or drug abuse plays
an important role in teenage suicide, especially if a teenager is battling a mental disorder.
Substance abuse can be identified as a co-factor that can negatively encourage suicide and
suicidal ideations in teenagers.
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Adult Support
As young people have numerous challenges to face, it’s important for them to receive the
proper guidance and support to help guide them through any difficult challenges that they are
facing. Guidance and support can be from a teenager’s parents, older family members, teachers,
coaches, etc. When a teenager has committed suicide, it comes as an abrupt disheartening
surprise to his/her parents, relatives, and friends. Parents feel a mixture of negative emotions
such as sadness, anxiety, fear, failure, rejection, incomprehension, and guilt (Ngwane & van der
Wath, 2019). As this can be a major shock, many parents tend to feel responsible for the abrupt
and unfortunate death of their children believing that there could have been something that they
could have done differently to prevent their child/children from committing suicide (Prest, 2016).
According to Prest (2016), this unwavering feeling of responsibility is identified as guilt that is
related with a parent’s grieving process. Oftentimes this guilt that parents feel after their child
commits suicide is completely or partly irrational, as there were no possible ways for them to
have been able to consistently and constantly monitor the activities of their teenage
child/children every minute (Prest, 2016).
Many adolescents receive more independence and less social support and supervision
from their parents, which increases the chances for disconnected relationships between both
parties (parents and teenage children) and the risk of self-harm and danger (Bridge, Goldstein, &
Brent, 2006). As Ngwane and van der Wath (2019) stated within their article, the risk of suicide
is normally strengthened by low support, low attachment, authoritarian parenting styles, and low
parental warmth. Many parents do not realize the extent to which their teenage children require
support until after suicide has been committed (Ngwane & van der Wath, 2019). This is why it’s
significant for teenagers to receive the right guidance and support from parents/guardians to
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navigate through the hardships that they encounter in every component of their lives. As many
psychological factors are present through behaviors, it’s imperative for parents and other
significant adults to be more perceptive and keen to observe the behaviors of the teenagers in
their lives. According to Dennis-Tiwary’s (2018) article, understanding psychological risk
factors when it comes to teenage suicide can be the most important thing that an adult (parent,
grandparent, teacher, guardian, etc.) can do to support and encourage teenagers. Having and
utilizing the knowledge that one has regarding teenage suicide can help prevent any future
suicide attempts or ideations.
Needs of Parents of Adolescents Who Attempt and Commit Suicide
When an adolescent child completes or attempts suicide it is considered a disruptive event
that stimulates complicated feelings in parents. For parents who have survived the horrific event
of their teenage child attempting suicide, it is essential for their psychosocial needs to be met.
Within their study, Ngwane and van der Wath (2019), examined the importance of mental
healthcare providers providing parents of teenage children who have attempted suicide with
psychosocial interventions that can positively boost the parent-child relationship in order to help
them prevent any more suicide attempts that could ultimately lead to fatality. This study proves
the reason why many parents need assistance in managing the complicated feelings that they are
experiencing and assistance on methods that they can use in improving their self-awareness and
parental skills to ultimately prevent any future suicide attempts from their teenage children.
When their teenage children have attempted suicide, many parents are overwhelmed with
complicated feelings and emotions such as fear, surprise, frustration, regret, hopelessness, anger,
and powerlessness (Ngwane & van der Wath, 2019). These emotions can continue to affect the
parent-child relationship and can lead to a reattempt of suicide from teenagers if they aren’t
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resolved and addressed. Therapy helps many people, when it comes to family conflicts such as
trauma within the family, a child acting out, death in the family, or a child attempting suicide
group counseling or family therapy can be a neutral space where everyone can come together to
voice out their needs and concerns with the help and guidance of a professional
counselor/therapist. By addressing these emotions and feelings with professionals, parents are
receiving an understanding of the psychological factors that lead their teenage children to
attempt suicide, they also gain knowledge and insight on how they can help their children.
For parents whose teenage children have committed suicide, they also feel the same
emotions of pain, anger, regret, and guilt. These parents and other family members have to
completely consolidate and adjust after the terrible death of their beloved teenager. To help
parents and other family members grieve properly and adjust, skilled and experienced
individuals come into the picture in the form of support groups and counselors that can help
support the needs of consolidation and adjustment in order to get parents and other family
members to properly grieve (Doka, n.d.).
Personal Reflection
My career goal is to become a Clinical Child Psychologist, and I believe that teenage
suicide is one topic out of the many topics that I will encounter in the future. As a psychology
major, I chose this topic because I generally believe that teenage suicide stems from many
underlying psychological factors within a teenager’s life that may not be visible. Within our
society, mental health is often underrated and less promoted as it is not taken seriously. One’s
mental health is significant to his/her overall health. Many people tend to brush off teenagers and
their feelings by making remarks such as “oh they’re just going through a phase”. At times it’s
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disheartening to hear these remarks because teenagers go through many major life challenges
that affect them mentally and emotionally, some teenagers shut everyone out due to negative or
lack of support from their family and friends ultimately causing their mental health to decline
and causing them to attempt or commit suicide.
I believe that the adolescence period is a challenging period of one’s entire lifespan, so
many physical, emotional, and mental developments occur which can cause various issues for a
teenager. During the adolescence phase, teenagers are navigating and identifying who they are,
this process comes with a lot of positive and negative outlooks. In my opinion, I believe that
prevention is better than cure, in the context of teenage suicide there is no cure for when a
teenager commits suicide which is why it’s important for preventive measures to be taken to
avoid the latter. While completing this project I gained more knowledge on how it’s important to
be able to identify and distinguish irregular behaviors and/or moods in teenagers as it constitutes
to underlying psychological factors of suicide.
Conclusion
The adolescence period is an overwhelming stage that consists of various development
changes and decisions, these changes can have monumental effects on a teenager most especially
psychologically, a teenager’s mental health needs to be taken care of as it can cause certain lethal
behaviors and actions such as suicide. As many teenagers tend to bottle up and keep to
themselves it’s important to have these young people open up from time to time in order to know
what assistance should be offered. There are numerous of resources and organizations that can
assist teenagers who are having suicide ideations such as the Society for the Prevention of Teen
Suicide (https://www.sptsusa.org/about-us/. ) The Society for the Prevention of Teen Suicide can
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help people to understand teenage suicide as it assists to decrease the number of adolescent
suicides and attempted suicides by providing resources and stimulating public awareness and
understanding through the promotion and development of educational training programs (Society
for the Prevention of Teen Suicide, n.d.). In conclusion, understanding teenage suicide from a
psychological standpoint can help save many young lives, therefore, it’s imperative to promote
the understanding of teenage suicide in order to properly obtain the knowledge of why it occurs.
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References
American Psychological Association. (n.d.) Frequently asked questions. Retrieved from
https://www.apa.org/support/about-apa
Bridge, J. A., Goldstein, T. R., & Brent, D. A. (2006). Adolescent Suicide and Suicidal
Behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(3–4), 372–394. Retrieved
from https://doi-org.ezproxy.umuc.e
Dennis-Tiwary, T. A. (2018, July 10). Teen Suicide. Retrieved from
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/more-feeling/201807/teen-suicide-0
Doka, K. J. (n.d.). Death system. Encyclopedia of death and dying. Retrieved
from http://www.deathreference.com/Da-Em/Death-System.html
Joshi, H., & Kackar, A. (2019). Teen suicides in India: Exploring the psychological, social and
academic factors. International Journal of Social Sciences Review, 7(5), 1220–1224.
Retrieved from https://search-ebscohost-com.
ezproxy.umuc.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=138044180&site=eds-live&
scope=site
Kumari, P., & Masih, P. (2019). Suicide in adolescence: A review of the literature. International
Journal of Social Sciences Review, 7(2), 269–272. Retrieved from https://search-ebscohostcom.
ezproxy.umuc.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=136084341&site
=eds-live&scope=site
Ngwane, V. E., & van der Wath, A. E. (2019). The psychosocial needs of parents of
adolescents who attempt suicide. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 29(4), 375–382.
Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.umuc.edu/10.1080/14330237.2019.1647494
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Prest, Layne A. (2016, Jan.). Grief and guilt. Magill’s Medical Guide (Online Edition).
Permalink: http://ezproxy.umuc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=ers&AN=89093422&site=eds-live&scope=site
Society for the Prevention of Teen Suicide. (n.d.). About Us. Retrieved from
https://www.sptsusa.org/about-us
Leadership in a culturally diverse organization: The impacts of a leader possessing cross-cultural competencies
No full textLEADERSHIP IN A CULTURALLY DIVERSE ORGANIZATION i
ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation: LEADERSHIP IN A CULTURALLY DIVERSE
ORGANIZATION: THE IMPACTS OF A LEADER
POSSESSING CROSS-CULTURAL COMPETENCIES
Kennedy Oketch Ngoje,
Doctor of Business Administration,2021
The globalization of different sectors of the economy poses many challenges to the management
of the businesses, especially on how to effectively manage the business that involves
multicultural employees and customers. The economic paradigm shift demands business
managers to pay serious attention to their employees' cross-cultural competencies (CCCs),
including their leaders’. Thus, the purpose of this research was to investigate the impact of a
leader in a multicultural organization who possesses cross-cultural competencies (CCCs), using
evidence-based management (EBMgt) to identify, analyze, and synthesize the relevant body of
empirical evidence on the topic to enhance management practice. This research was underpinned
by the social learning theory and the contact theory. A systematic review was performed on fifty-
three peer-reviewed studies published from 1998 to 2021. The process included a critical
appraisal of the studies for consideration. The selected studies were then subjected to the analysis and synthesis process, where the findings and the emerged themes relevant to answering the
research question were recorded. The following is the research question (RQ): What are the
impacts of a leader in a multicultural organization who possesses cross-cultural competencies?
Three of the main findings of the research indicate that a multicultural leader who has CCCs is
positively associated with: fast adaptations and adjustments to cross-cultural situations, ability to
resolve conflicts, and capacity to establish working alliances. Some of the key recommendations
to the management include sensitizing employees on the need for CCCs, considering the
candidate’s CCCs during recruitments, setting up CCCs employees listening sessions, adjusting
the organizational design to improve cross-cultural interaction between the employees of
different cultural backgrounds, setting up effective CCCs’ development and training programs
for the employees, and giving new employees the needed time and resources to develop their
CCCs before assigning them to jobs in novel cultural environments.LEADERSHIP IN A CULTURALLY DIVERSE ORGANIZATION
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ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation:
LEADERSHIP IN A CULTURALLY DIVERSE ORGANIZATION: THE IMPACTS OF A LEADER POSSESSING CROSS-CULTURAL COMPETENCIES
Kennedy Oketch Ngoje,
Doctor of Business Administration,2021
The globalization of different sectors of the economy poses many challenges to the management of the businesses, especially on how to effectively manage the business that involves multicultural employees and customers. The economic paradigm shift demands business managers to pay serious attention to their employees' cross-cultural competencies (CCCs), including their leaders’. Thus, the purpose of this research was to investigate the impact of a leader in a multicultural organization who possesses cross-cultural competencies (CCCs), using evidence-based management (EBMgt) to identify, analyze, and synthesize the relevant body of empirical evidence on the topic to enhance management practice. This research was underpinned by the social learning theory and the contact theory. A systematic review was performed on fifty-three peer-reviewed studies published from 1998 to 2021. The process included a critical appraisal of the studies for consideration. The selected studies were then subjected to the analysis LEADERSHIP IN A CULTURALLY DIVERSE ORGANIZATION
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and synthesis process, where the findings and the emerged themes relevant to answering the research question were recorded. The following is the research question (RQ): What are the impacts of a leader in a multicultural organization who possesses cross-cultural competencies? Three of the main findings of the research indicate that a multicultural leader who has CCCs is positively associated with: fast adaptations and adjustments to cross-cultural situations, ability to resolve conflicts, and capacity to establish working alliances. Some of the key recommendations to the management include sensitizing employees on the need for CCCs, considering the candidate’s CCCs during recruitments, setting up CCCs employees listening sessions, adjusting the organizational design to improve cross-cultural interaction between the employees of different cultural backgrounds, setting up effective CCCs’ development and training programs for the employees, and giving new employees the needed time and resources to develop their CCCs before assigning them to jobs in novel cultural environments.
Keywords: cross-cultural competencies, multiculturalism, cultural competence, cultural intelligence, emotional intelligence, social intelligence.
LEADERSHIP IN A CULTURALLY DIVERSE ORGANIZATION
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LEADERSHIP IN A CULTURALLY DIVERSE ORGANIZATION: THE IMPACTS OF A LEADER POSSESSING CROSS-CULTURAL COMPETENCIES
By
Kennedy Oketch Ngoje
Dissertation submitted to the School of Business,
University of Maryland Global Campus, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
2021 LEADERSHIP IN A CULTURALLY DIVERSE ORGANIZATION
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© Copyright by
[Kennedy Oketch Ngoje]
2021 v
Dedication
First, I thank the Almighty God for all the blessings. This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of my parents, Sila Ngoje and Salome Ngoje, for their unconditional love and pride in me throughout their lives. I also dedicate this dissertation to all those from humble family backgrounds and feel hopeless in their lives. vi
Acknowledgements
I would like to extend my sincere and profound gratitude to Dr. John Sherlock for the invaluable and untiring guidance throughout the journey. Dr. Sherlock, thank you very much for sacrificing your holidays and weekends to offer your mentorship in this journey. Your friendly demeanor made it very easy to seek your guidance.
I also would like to thank Dr. James Gelatt for the invaluable comments and availability throughout the journey.
My gratitude also goes to Dr. Mohamed Ezz who was the third reader, for taking time to read through the research and give the necessary comments, that all proved to be so helpful in improving its quality.
I also would like to extend my gratitude to Dr. Marcia Bouchard, Dr. Lisa Pearo, and Dr. Alex Vernon for the courses that laid the foundation of this program. Ms. Marina Caminis, thank you for all the guidance and support throughout this program. Ms. Caminis, the position you hold in the doctoral program is indispensable.
I also would like to thank Ms. Cynthia Thomes, for all the support in matters related database searches; your presentations and one-to-one meetings were essential throughout the whole journey.
Let me also extend my gratitude to my family and friends who continue to perceive my potential positively.
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Table of Contents
Dedication ............................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................1
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................2
List of Abbreviations............................................................................................................3
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem ..................................4
Background and Overview ......................................................................................7
Problem Statement and Significance of the Problem ............................................13
Purpose of the Study and the Research Question ..................................................15
Rationale for the Study or Significance of the Study ............................................17
Discussion of Concepts and/or Themes .................................................................18
Definitions and Terminology .................................................................................18
Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................23
Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................24
Chapter 2: Scoping Literature Review and Theoretical Frame .........................................25
Theoretical Framework ..........................................................................................25
The Literature Landscape or Scoping Literature Review ......................................32
Conceptual Framework ..........................................................................................61
Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................63
Chapter 3: Method .............................................................................................................64
The Evidence-Based Research Framework ...........................................................64
Six Steps That Define EBMgt ................................................................................67 viii
Systematic Reviews ...............................................................................................68
Systematic Review Process....................................................................................70
Search Strategy ......................................................................................................74
Method of Quality Appraisal of the Included Studies ...........................................77
Analysis and Synthesis Methodology ....................................................................81
Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................83
Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ......................................................................................85
Review of the Research Question ..........................................................................85
Description of the Data Set ....................................................................................85
Results of the Quality Appraisal of the Data Set ...................................................90
Results of Coding ...................................................................................................91
Findings and Discussion ........................................................................................96
Thematic Analysis ................................................................................................ 114
Summary of Findings ........................................................................................... 115
Chapter Summary ................................................................................................ 115
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications ........................................................................ 117
Review of the Research ....................................................................................... 117
Answer to the Research Question ........................................................................ 117
Management Implications (Recommendations) .................................................. 118
Limitations of the Study.......................................................................................124
Areas for Future Research ...................................................................................126
Final Summary and Conclusion ...........................................................................127
References ........................................................................................................................128 ix
Appendix A Details of Selected Studies ..........................................................................160
Appendix B TAPUPAS Appraisal Studies Results ..........................................................167
Appendix C WoE Appraisal Studies Results ...................................................................171
Appendix D Sources of Themes ......................................................................................174
Appendix E Roles of Components of CQ ........................................................................176
Appendix F UMGC OneSearch Databases ......................................................................177
Appendix G ProQuest Database Aggregator ...................................................................179
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List of Tables
Table 1 Defining Cross-Cultural Competence .............................................................................. 9
Table 2 International Migration 1970 – 2019 ...............................................................................11
Table 3 U.S. Ethnic Percentage Change: 1980–2019 .................................................................. 13
Table 4 PICOC Definition Table ................................................................................................. 16
Table 5 Formulation of Research Question ................................................................................. 17
Table 6 Low Power Distance Versus High Power Distance ........................................................ 60
Table 7 Association between PICOC Components and Search Terms ........................................ 76
Table 8 Searches Used ................................................................................................................. 76
Table 9 Frequencies of Studies by Study Method ....................................................................... 86
Table 10 First-Cycle Coding ........................................................................................................ 93
Table 11 Second-Cycle Coding .................................................................................................... 94
Table 12 Differences Among the Three Main Components of CCC ..........................................113 2
List of Figures
Figure 1 Culture as a Multi-Level and a Multi-Layer ................................................................. 40
Figure 2 Conceptual Model of Cross-Cultural Leader ................................................................ 62
Figure 3 Evidence and Evidence Management Practice ............................................................. 66
Figure 4 Systematic Literature Review Flowchart ..................................................................... 71
Figure 5 PRISMA Diagram ......................................................................................................... 80
Figure 6 Source of the Primary Studies ...................................................................................... 88
Figure 7 Source of Study Participants ......................................................................................... 90
Figure 8 Cultural Dimensions to Coding Categories ................................................................... 95
Figure 9 Findings ........................................................................................................................ 97
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List of Abbreviations
Acronym Description
ABI/INFORM: Abstracted Business Information/Information CAQDAS: Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software
CC: Cultural Competence
CCA: Cross-cultural adaptation CCC: Cross-cultural competence
CCCs: Cross-cultural competencies
CQ: Cultural Intelligence
EBMgt: Evidence-based management EI: Emotional Intelligence HCNs: Home country nationals HPD: High-power distance LPD: Low-power distance MNC: Multinational corporation MMCS: Multinational corporations PD: Power distance PICo: Population, phenomenon of Interest, Context PICO: Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome,
PICOC: Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Context
PRISMA: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis
RQ : Research Question SI : Social Intelligence
SLT: Social Learning Theory SR: Systematic Review TA: Thematic Analysis TAPUPAS: Transparency, Accuracy, Purposivity, Utility, Propriety, Accessibility, Specificity
UK: United Kingdom
UMGC: University of Maryland Global Campus WoE: Weight of Evidence
WTO: World Trade Organization 4
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem
The globalization of different sectors of the economy has been on a rapid trajectory since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989, the formation of the European Union in 1983, and the formation of the World Trade Organization in 1995. Apart from the above-stated single-instance political changes, Chen and Starosta (1996) identified the following three factors that have accelerated the pace of globalization over the past two decades: (1) development of more communication and transportation connections across the world, (2) extensive population migrations across national borders, and (3) deemphasis of the nation-state and formation of regional alliances by countries. Since these three factors still hold true in most parts of the world, globalization is likely to continue at the same pace or faster. Many organizations have taken advantage of the removal of the trade barriers in expanding their businesses beyond their home country nationals (HCNs). However, many have also faced challenges related to cultural differences.
One of the critical problems that has developed from economic globalization is that practitioners must be able to effectively interact with people (coworkers, suppliers, and customers) of different cultural backgrounds (Reichard et al., 2015), which has led to many business failures (Johnson et al.,2006). In the same line, Lee and Sukoco (2010) argue that globalization has caused a significant increase in cross-cultural interactions, a process that has led to cultural challenges such as language barriers that hinder the practitioners from achieving total job satisfaction (Diao & Park, 2012). Additionally, Ersoy (2014) assert that this issue negatively impacts the performance of the organizations. Gregersen et al. (1998) discover in a survey of Fortune 500 firms in the United States that 85% of CEOs state that the critical problem they are facing is a shortage of people with the required global leadership competencies. 5
Makraiova et al. (2012) contend that “rapid market and economic changes that took place in the past 20 years have brought a significant effect not only into the international trade but also influenced everyday life, resulting in different cultural interactions and requiring specific managerial competencies” (p.533). Likewise, Chen and Starosta (1996) argue that migration has changed the population composition of nations, resulting in many societies becoming much more culturally diverse. In that line, Chen and Starosta (1996) provide an example in the United States where the trend of changes in the composition of the workforce reveals an increase in diversification in terms of culture, gender, and age.
There have been several studies on cross-cultural competence (CCC), especially regarding multicultural relations, cross-cultural transition, and adaptation; however, most of them have been done under the business problems of cultural competence, or CC (Wilson et al., 2013). CCC is a polysemous term whose diverse meanings depend on the group of people using the phrase (Leung et al., 2013). Therefore it “has been conceptualized in many ways” (Culhane et al., 2012, p.30), and it “covers a broad domain of individual qualities and capabilities deemed critical to mission performance in novel cultural settings” (p.32). Many of the definitions of CCC are based on one’s ability to understand a situation in a cultural context different from one’s own and to act on it effectively and promptly (Culhane et al., 2012; Hansen et al., 2000). In that line, Bean (2006) defines CCC as “the ability to function or work effectively in culturally diverse situations in general and in particular encounters with people from different cultures” (p.15), further stating that it is not innate but is acquired through experience and training. Additionally, Gertsen (1990) defines CCC as “the ability to function effectively in another culture” (p.341), stating that it is conceptionally made up of three interdependent dimensions that include an affective dimension, a cognitive dimension, and a communicative/behavioral dimension” 6
(p.346). At the same time, Johnson et al. (2006) describe it as one’s ability to use one’s knowledge and attributes effectively to work with people of diverse cultural backgrounds in both domestic and foreign cultural contexts, while Charleston et al. (2018) define it as “an individual’s capability and knowledge to successfully undertake a task in a cross-cultural setting” (p.3072).
The overarching aim of CCC is to provide the ability to interact effectively with people of different cultural backgrounds and to respond effectively with the expected outcome, a process that Johnson et al. (2006) use to draw their comparison with CC. They state that CCC is conceptualized “in terms of performance, or outcomes: that is, in terms of an individual’s proficiency in responding to a different cultural context and cues by drawing appropriately upon the inventory of knowledge, skills, and attributes and behaving accordingly” (p.530). Ultimately, this leads Johnson
Business intelligence and data analytics in small business: Exploring the drivers of adoption
No full textBusinesses of all sizes are increasingly challenged by the need to be competitive in the marketplace, improve operating performance, and deliver sustainable financial results. This need places constant pressure on business leaders to incorporate new approaches and adopt new technologies to meet these challenges. One strategic approach business is leveraging is the Data Science technology of Business Intelligence and Data Analytics(BI&A). BI&A is adopted widely by large and multinational corporations, yet the adoption of this technology is not as prolific across Small and Medium-Size Enterprises(SMEs). This disparity of BI&A adoption has surfaced concern regarding the potential for a competitive disadvantage to SMEs and the secondary ramifications.BI&A is a term that describes an array of information technology methods, tools, techniques, applications, and management practices employed to improve business decision-making. The use and adoption of this technology have enabled businesses to take advantage of available data, create competitive market advantage, transform their internal operations, and ultimately increase their growth and profitability.
2SMEs play a vital role in the world’s economy. SMEs account for nearly 90% of the enterprises, almost60% of the employment, and over 50% of industrialized nations’ Gross Domestic Product (GDP). SMEs play a socio-economic role by providing gainful employment and reducing poverty. They also play a strategic role by innovating and creating new technology incorporated into larger corporations’ offerings. Hence, if SMEs are sluggish to adopt BI&A, it could have a detrimental global impact.This dissertation used Evidence-Based Research and Thematic Synthesis to explore the drivers of BI&A adoption in SMEs. Beginning with the literature review, this body of research identifies the similar and different characteristics of SMEs versus larger corporations and translates that into issues and needs for BI&A. The systematic review employed in the study sourced relevant literature from 26 peer-reviewed scholarly articles published on the topic from 2010 through 2020, extracted findings through thematic synthesis,and identified both factors and hierarchical themes influencing the adoption of BI&A in SMEs. Finally, recommendations are presented with implications to management regarding how these themes may be programmatically applied for adoption success.1
ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation:
Business Intelligence and Data Analytics in Small Business: Exploring the Drivers of Adoption
Dissertation Author:
William James Howden Doctor of Business Administration
University of Maryland Global Campus, 2021
Dissertation Advisors:
Dr. Lisa Klein Pearo and Dr. Mary Jo Anderson
Businesses of all sizes are increasingly challenged by the need to be competitive in the marketplace, improve operating performance, and deliver sustainable financial results. This need places constant pressure on business leaders to incorporate new approaches and adopt new technologies to meet these challenges. One strategic approach business is leveraging is the Data Science technology of Business Intelligence and Data Analytics (BI&A). BI&A is adopted widely by large and multinational corporations, yet the adoption of this technology is not as prolific across Small and Medium-Size Enterprises (SMEs). This disparity of BI&A adoption has surfaced concern regarding the potential for a competitive disadvantage to SMEs and the secondary ramifications.
BI&A is a term that describes an array of information technology methods, tools, techniques, applications, and management practices employed to improve business decision-making. The use and adoption of this technology have enabled businesses to take advantage of available data, create competitive market advantage, transform their internal operations, and ultimately increase their growth and profitability. 2
SMEs play a vital role in the world’s economy. SMEs account for nearly 90% of the enterprises, almost 60% of the employment, and over 50% of industrialized nations’ Gross Domestic Product (GDP). SMEs play a socio-economic role by providing gainful employment and reducing poverty. They also play a strategic role by innovating and creating new technology incorporated into larger corporations’ offerings. Hence, if SMEs are sluggish to adopt BI&A, it could have a detrimental global impact.
This dissertation used Evidence-Based Research and Thematic Synthesis to explore the drivers of BI&A adoption in SMEs. Beginning with the literature review, this body of research identifies the similar and different characteristics of SMEs versus larger corporations and translates that into issues and needs for BI&A. The systematic review employed in the study sourced relevant literature from 26 peer-reviewed scholarly articles published on the topic from 2010 through 2020, extracted findings through thematic synthesis, and identified both factors and hierarchical themes influencing the adoption of BI&A in SMEs. Finally, recommendations are presented with implications to management regarding how these themes may be programmatically applied for adoption success.
Keywords: SME, Small Business, BI&A, Business Intelligence, Data Analytics, Predictive Modeling, Technology Adoption, TOE
3
BUSINESS INTELLIGENCE AND DATA ANALYTICS IN SMALL BUSINESS: EXPLORING THE DRIVERS OF ADOPTION
By
William James Howden
Dissertation submitted to the
Graduate School of Business
University of Maryland Global Campus
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
2021
Dissertation Advisors:
Dr. Lisa Klein Pearo
Dr. Mary Jo Anderson
4
© Copyright by
William James Howden
2021
5
Preface
I began my doctoral journey with the University of Maryland Global Campus at the tender age of 60. I was fortunate to have enjoyed a prosperous career in high technology with roles spanning engineering, project management, operations leadership, general management, executive leadership, and consultancy across 40 years. While early retirement was an option, I did not want to finish working so early. I felt as though I had far too much valuable experience and wanted to continue contributing in new and significant ways. Hence, I pursued a DBA to learn new tools and reinvent myself by synergizing my legacy toolset with new knowledge.
Much of my career was in telecom, developing, producing, and implementing large-scale satellite network systems and sophisticated network monitoring and test systems. We served a spectrum of world-wide customers, network domains, and technologies. I enjoyed frequent customer interaction, typically from sales negotiations through to system acceptance.
I would often see a consistent theme where many customers would spend millions of dollars for a sophisticated and powerful technical solution – then only use a tiny fraction of that solution’s capability. Usage of these solutions by the stakeholders was often considered optional, and it would be fair to say that those solutions were under-adopted. Occasionally, however, I would encounter a customer who was the extreme opposite - they purchased a sophisticated solution and knit that solution’s full capability into the fabric of their daily operation, creating a reliance upon the solution (and our company), and adopted it fully. Quantifying this personal experience, I can point to about seven customers out of more than one hundred that demonstrated this comprehensive usage prowess.
Once I left the telecom world, one of my early consulting clients was a big data provider, who engaged me in developing a model (a playbook) to guide them on how to best deliver their 6
service such that the customer optimally utilizes the solution, ideally creating a reliance. I successfully delivered a model, specific methods, a playbook, and training that met their needs, and I understood it was well-used for many years. Six years later, that same company engaged me again to take that model to a higher level. They were now a much larger organization with substantially larger customers that created new issues and opportunities. Again, I embraced this challenge and delivered a comprehensive process to guide them for the foreseeable future.
Interestingly, the big data firm's customers demonstrated the same behavior as the telecom customers – procuring a powerful capability, only to position it as an optional tool, resulting in significant under-adoption. Yet again, a small segment of the customers heavily utilized the solution’s full capability daily. While I witnessed the behavior and understood the symptoms, I could not accurately identify the underlying causation of this operational behavior's two extremes. This situation left me curious to understand the root causes, or better – to explore prevention or remedial methods to ensure that when an organization procures such capability, it is operationalized into highly productive use and adopted across the organization.
This experience fueled my interest in this dissertation topic, and I believe that my research outcome hit the target where I was aiming. I hope that this research, my findings, conclusions, and the implementation structure that I created can assist management, practitioners, and consultants in operationalizing BI&A technology into SMEs and leverage this powerful asset known as scholarly research.
7
Dedication
Obtaining a doctoral degree is a physical, mental, and emotional challenge of intensity and endurance. It is all-consuming and often takes far more than the student initially wanted to give. The support provided to that successful student comes in many ways, from many sources, where every experience and every interaction adds to their knowledge base.
Therefore, this degree does not belong to me alone. It belongs to my beloved family, past and present, immediate and extended; close friends that I consider family; business associates; academic cohorts; and most notably – my parents. I dedicate this dissertation in memory of William Thomas Howden (1916-2011) and Mary Grace Howden, nee West (1913-1987).
8
Acknowledgments
I acknowledge and want to express my gratitude to:
• The University of Maryland Global Campus (UMGC) for offering such a rich doctoral program, and the faculty and staff who were directly a part of my journey;
• Dr. Lisa Klein Pearo for being my fantastic faculty mentor. She provided excellent guidance, feedback, and extensive repetitive reviews of my material. She was instrumental in this success;
• Tom Murray, Todd Chaikin, Andy & Bud Wildman, Rick West, Dave Allen, Dan Fradkin, and Pete Cameron for serving as my Subject Matter Experts. They offered excellent observations and provided detailed feedback;
• My wife Kathy Retos, my cousin Marcia Deeb, and my friend I.J. Hudson for their thorough proofreading, valuable suggestions, and excellent editorial contribution.
• My family, past and present, immediate and extended for your love, support, patience, inspiration, and the value we all place on higher education;
• Those who knowingly or unknowingly served as mentors and inspirational leaders throughout my career, notably George Ward, Bill Cooney, John D'Anna, John Peeler, and many other brilliant colleagues;
• The camaraderie of a wonderful doctoral cohort group together on this journey;
• My beautiful daughters Corey Howden and Kerri Howden, who never tire of hearing me discuss Data Analytics… (or maybe they do, and they smile);
• And my patient dog, Sasha who will finally get her dad back to play fetch.
9
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... 1
Preface............................................................................................................................................ 5
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... 7
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... 8
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 9
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... 13
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... 14
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem ........................................... 15
Background .......................................................................................................................... 15
The New Frontier - The Fourth Industrial Revolution .............................................. 15
Technology’s Role in Business Success ................................................................... 16
Overviews ............................................................................................................................ 17
Overview of BI&A ................................................................................................... 17
Overview of SMEs .................................................................................................... 18
The Problem Statement ........................................................................................................ 18
Significance of the Problem ................................................................................................. 20
Summary Review of the Business Problem ......................................................................... 24
The Research Question ........................................................................................................ 25
The Rationale for the Study ................................................................................................. 25
Organization of the Dissertation .......................................................................................... 26
Chapter 1 Summary ............................................................................................................. 27
Chapter 2: Scoping Literature Review and Theoretical Frame .................................................... 28
SME Overview, Importance, & General Issues ................................................................... 28
Definition of SMEs ................................................................................................... 28
Economic Density of SMEs ...................................................................................... 29
SMEs Importance to National Economies ................................................................ 29
Differing Characteristics and Challenges of SMEs .................................................. 30
SME Summary .......................................................................................................... 30
BI&A Overview, Components, & Importance to Enterprises ............................................. 31
BI&A Definition ....................................................................................................... 31
BI&A Industrial Applications ................................................................................... 32
BI&A Technology Components ............................................................................... 34
BI&A Solutions ........................................................................................................ 37
BI&A Importance ..................................................................................................... 38
BI&A Summary ........................................................................................................ 39
Common Challenges Facing Enterprises ............................................................................. 40
Contrasts Between SMEs and Large Corporations Regarding BI&A ................................. 40
Characteristic Differences between SME and Large Corporations .......................... 40
BI&A Adoption in Large Corporations .................................................................... 41
Large Corporations Outpace SMEs in BI&A Adoption ........................................... 42
Lack of Available Literature on BI&A in SMEs ...................................................... 46
Business Comparison Summary ............................................................................... 47
Scoping Literature Review Summary .................................................................................. 47
Development of the Theoretical Framework ....................................................................... 48 10
Basic Conceptual Model ........................................................................................... 48
Combining the Theory and Framework .................................................................... 51
Conceptual Framework Summary ....................................................................................... 53
Chapter 2 Summary ............................................................................................................. 53
Chapter 3: Method ........................................................................................................................ 55
Focus of the Research .......................................................................................................... 55
Evidence-Based Management and Evidence-Based Research ............................................ 56
Research Philosophy ............................................................................................................ 57
Philosophy ................................................................................................................. 57
Approach to Theory Development ............................................................................ 57
Methodological Choice ............................................................................................. 58
Systematic Review .................................................................................................... 58
Strategy and Research Design................................................................................... 59
Time Horizon ............................................................................................................ 60
Techniques and Procedures ....................................................................................... 60
Search Strategy .................................................................................................................... 62
Search Portals and Databases .................................................................................... 62
Search Terms ............................................................................................................ 64
Process and PRISMA........................................................................................................... 66
Inclusion Criteria ................................................................................................................. 69
Exclusion Criteria ................................................................................................................ 70
Quality Assessment of Literature ........................................................................................ 72
Data Extraction and Coding Steps ....................................................................................... 73
Codification, Analysis, and Synthesis Detail....................................................................... 75
Results from Sourcing and Screening with Distiller SR...................................................... 77
List of Included and Excluded Documents .......................................................................... 81
Subject Matter Experts......................................................................................................... 81
Inquiry and Feedback of the Subject Matter Experts .......................................................... 81
Chapter 3 Summary ............................................................................................................. 83
Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ................................................................................................. 84
Review of the Business Problem ......................................................................................... 84
Review of the Research Question ............................................................................. 86
Description of the Data Set .................................................................................................. 86
Results of the Quality Appraisal of the Data Set ................................................................. 88
Results of the Synthesis of the Articles in the Data Set ....................................................... 93
Pre-Coding Development of Initial Starting Points .................................................. 93
First Cycle Coding .................................................................................................... 93
Refinement and Reorganization ................................................................................ 94
Second Cycle Coding ................................................................................................ 94
Thematic Analysis and Synthesis ............................................................................. 95
Theme 1 – BI&A Adoption Starts with a
The impact of adopting spiritual and knowledge leadership on informated fact-based decision-making for leaders in data science organizations: A systematic review
No full textThe management problem addressed in this study is that leaders in data science organizations lack the spiritual-level competencies (e.g., emotional intelligence, cultural intelligence, introspection) needed to inform fact-based decision-making, the combination of which is necessary for efficient organizational performance.Most data science organizations work with evidence in a linear fashion facilitated by the simplicity and elegance of big data visualization, which tempts data science leaders to bypass the crucial work of critical thinking and use of the best available evidence. Leaders ’lack of critical thinking and use of the best-known facts results in incomplete decisions. Data science organizations lose millions of dollars yearly due to their leaders’ incomplete or uninformed decisions.Organizational leaders can be successful and respected when they draw not only on their decision-making ability but also on their spirituality as they lead their organizations and themselves (Fry & Wigglesworth, 2013). This qualitative systematic review explored peer-reviewed academic research to uncover the leaders’ potential adoption of spiritual and knowledge leadership to improve informed fact-
based decision-making in data science organizations.The guiding research question was as follows:Can the adoption of spiritual and knowledge leadership have an impact on informed fact-based decision-making by leaders in data science organizations? To evaluate the research question,this study employed the theoretical lenses of spiritual leadership theory, organizational knowledge creation theory, and the theory of evidence-baseddecision-making. Using thematic synthesis, five analytical themes emerged as a result of coding the study data based on similarities, frequencies, and patterns(spiritual-level leadership competencies could help inform fact-based decision-making, spiritual and knowledge leadership could positively impact critical and creative thinking, leaders’ lack of awareness of the benefits of informed fact-based decision-making, spiritual and knowledge leaders could be influencers for improved organizational learning capabilities,and high-quality evidence tends to improve informed fact-based decision-making for leaders). One of the key recommendations derived from this research is to introduce and promote the identification and hiring characteristics of spiritual and knowledge leaders.ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation:
THE IMPACT OF ADOPTING SPIRITUAL AND KNOWLEDGE LEADERSHIP ON INFORMED FACT-BASED DECISION-MAKING FOR LEADERS IN DATA SCIENCE ORGANIZATIONS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
Priscilla Gathoni, Doctor of Management, 2021
The management problem addressed in this study is that leaders in data science organizations lack the spiritual-level competencies (e.g., emotional intelligence, cultural intelligence, introspection) needed to inform fact-based decision-making, the combination of which is necessary for efficient organizational performance. Most data science organizations work with evidence in a linear fashion facilitated by the simplicity and elegance of big data visualization, which tempts data science leaders to bypass the crucial work of critical thinking and use of the best available evidence. Leaders’ lack of critical thinking and use of the best-known facts results in incomplete decisions. Data science organizations lose millions of dollars yearly due to their leaders’ incomplete or uninformed decisions. Organizational leaders can be successful and respected when they draw not only on their decision-making ability but also on their spirituality as they lead their organizations and themselves (Fry & Wigglesworth, 2013). This qualitative systematic review explored peer-reviewed academic research to uncover the leaders’ potential adoption of spiritual and knowledge leadership to improve informed fact-based decision-making in data science organizations. The guiding research question was as follows: Can the adoption of spiritual and knowledge leadership have an impact on informed fact-based decision-making by leaders in data science organizations? To evaluate the research question, this study employed the theoretical lenses of spiritual leadership theory, organizational knowledge creation theory, and the theory of evidence-based decision-making. Using thematic synthesis, five analytical themes emerged as a result of coding the study data based on similarities, frequencies, and patterns (spiritual-level leadership competencies could help inform fact-based decision-making, spiritual and knowledge leadership could positively impact critical and creative thinking, leaders’ lack of awareness of the benefits of informed fact-based decision-making, spiritual and knowledge leaders could be influencers for improved organizational learning capabilities, and high-quality evidence tends to improve informed fact-based decision-making for leaders). One of the key recommendations derived from this research is to introduce and promote the identification and hiring characteristics of spiritual and knowledge leaders.
Keywords: spiritual leadership, knowledge leadership, informed fact-based decision-making, data science, organizational performance
BREAK THE IMPACT OF ADOPTING SPIRITUAL AND KNOWLEDGE LEADERSHIP ON INFORMED FACT-BASED DECISION-MAKING FOR LEADERS IN DATA SCIENCE ORGANIZATIONS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
By
Priscilla Gathoni
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the School of Business of the
University of Maryland Global Campus, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Management
2021
© Copyright by
Priscilla Gathoni
2021
ii
Dedication
I dedicate this doctoral dissertation to the loving memory of my mother, grandfather, and uncle. The inspiration and motivation to take on this challenging journey came from you many years ago. Thank you especially to my mother for the guidance, love, teaching, and unwavering support that has made me who I am today. May your Eternal Spirits rejoice in this work.
I also dedicate this doctoral dissertation to a young man that brings radiance, joy, and balance to my life, my son. Thank you for always being an inspiration and best friend.
To my wonderful family and friends, I say thank you. Your encouragement, support, and love from the beginning until the end of this journey have been remarkable. You knew that my heart, head, spirit, and soul were bound in this work and that nothing would stop me from achieving my goal the moment I started.
I am grateful for the Divine and Great Spirit that guides, leads, comforts, directs, nourishes, and restores the integrity of our minds to be at one with the Great Architect of the Universe. iii
Acknowledgements
There are several people who provided helpful guidance and encouragement to me throughout the dissertation journey. I am grateful for my mentors, Dr. Raymond Marbury and Dr. Laura Witz, for their insight, prodding, and encouragement that kept me on track to finish this dissertation on time. I am thankful for Dr. Leslie Dinauer for her unwavering support and constant encouragement during the doctoral program.
I acknowledge my cohort members who have been my co-pilots on this doctoral quest. We have shared a special bond and walked through the paths of this journey with pride.
Finally, I am most grateful for my four subject matter experts who spared their time, knowledge, and expertise to guide my research in the best direction, probing me gently, and ensuring my work was rigorously and relevant.
iv
Table of Contents
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iii
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. viii
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem ............................................. 1
Background and Overview ......................................................................................................... 1
Data Science........................................................................................................................... 3
Spiritual Leadership ................................................................................................................ 5
Knowledge Leadership ........................................................................................................... 7
Informed fact-based decision-making..................................................................................... 8
Problem Statement ...................................................................................................................... 9
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................... 9
Research Question .................................................................................................................... 10
Rationale for the Study ............................................................................................................. 11
Conceptual Definitions ............................................................................................................. 12
Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................... 14
Chapter 2: Scoping Literature Review and Conceptual Framework ............................................ 15
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 15
The Literature Landscape ......................................................................................................... 15
Data Science Organizations .................................................................................................. 16
Spiritual Leadership .............................................................................................................. 19
Knowledge Leadership ......................................................................................................... 24
Informed Fact-based Decision-Making ................................................................................ 28
Theories.................................................................................................................................... 30
Spiritual Leadership Theory ................................................................................................. 32
Theory of Organizational Knowledge Creation .................................................................... 34
Theory of Evidence-Based Decision-Making ....................................................................... 37
CIMO and Conceptual Framework ....................................................................................... 39
Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................................... 42
Chapter 3: Method ........................................................................................................................ 43
The Evidence-Based Research Framework .............................................................................. 43
Evidence-Based Management ............................................................................................... 44
Systematic Reviews .............................................................................................................. 47
Systematic Review Methodology and Protocol .................................................................... 48
Review Initiation and Analysis of the Research Question........................................................ 49
Search Strategy ......................................................................................................................... 51
Search Process ...................................................................................................................... 52
Search Terms ........................................................................................................................ 53
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ........................................................................................... 54
Limitations of the Search Strategy ........................................................................................ 55
Data Extraction ..................................................................................................................... 56
Quality Appraisal ...................................................................................................................... 57
Method of Quality Appraisal of the Included Studies .......................................................... 57 v
Article Rating ........................................................................................................................ 59
Subject Matter Experts Input .................................................................................................... 60
Analysis and Synthesis Methodology ....................................................................................... 62
Method of Synthesis ............................................................................................................. 62
Coding Process...................................................................................................................... 64
Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................................... 67
Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ................................................................................................. 69
Review of the Research Question ............................................................................................. 69
Description of the Data Set ....................................................................................................... 69
Results of the Quality Appraisal of the Data Set ...................................................................... 71
Steps for the Coding Procedure ............................................................................................ 73
Results of Data Set Article Synthesis ....................................................................................... 74
Theme 1: Spiritual-Level Leadership Competencies Could Help Inform Fact-Based Decision-Making................................................................................................................... 76
Theme 2: Spiritual and Knowledge Leadership Could Positively Impact Critical and Creative Thinking ................................................................................................................. 83
Theme 3: Leaders’ Lack of Awareness of the Benefits of Informed Fact-Based Decision-Making ................................................................................................................................. 86
Theme 4: Spiritual and Knowledge Leaders Could be Influencers for Improved Organizational Learning Capabilities ................................................................................... 87
Theme 5: High Quality Evidence Tends to Improve Informed Fact-Based Decision-Making for Leaders ............................................................................................................................ 90
Overall Findings and Conceptual Framework Alignment ........................................................ 93
Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................................... 96
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications ..................................................................................... 98
Organization of the Chapter ...................................................................................................... 98
Review of the Research ............................................................................................................ 98
Study Purpose ....................................................................................................................... 98
Problem Statement ................................................................................................................ 98
Methodology ......................................................................................................................... 99
Overall Findings.................................................................................................................... 99
Answer to the Research Question ........................................................................................... 100
Management Implications ....................................................................................................... 101
Introduce and Promote the Identification and Hiring Characteristics of Spiritual and Knowledge Leaders ............................................................................................................ 102
Introduce and Nurture Workplace Spirituality Programs ................................................... 103
Maximize the Critical and Creative Thinking Opportunities for Leaders Within the Organization ........................................................................................................................ 105
Promote and Sustain Informed Fact-Based Decision-Making Awareness ......................... 106
Develop and Implement Organizational Learning Capabilities.......................................... 108
Summary ............................................................................................................................. 111
Limitations of the Study and Areas for Future Research ........................................................ 111
Limitations of the Study...................................................................................................... 111
Limitations of the Theories Used ........................................................................................ 112
Areas for Future Research .................................................................................................. 113
Final Summary and Conclusion .............................................................................................. 114 vi
References .................................................................................................................................. 117
Appendix A ................................................................................................................................ 130
Appendix B ................................................................................................................................ 151
Appendix C ................................................................................................................................ 152
Appendix D ................................................................................................................................ 157
Appendix E ................................................................................................................................ 158
Appendix F................................................................................................................................. 160
vii
List of Tables
Table 1 Summary of Theories .......................................................................................................31
Table 2 CIMO Framework ............................................................................................................50
Table 3 Search Strings by Database ..............................................................................................53
Table 4 Study Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria............................................................................55
Table 5 Subject Matter Expert Panel.............................................................................................61
Table 6 Study Type .......................................................................................................................71
Table 7 Quality Assessment Levels and Results ...........................................................................73
Table 8 Findings Derived From Thematic Synthesis ....................................................................74
Table 9 Thematic Synthesis Results..............................................................................................76
viii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Causal Model of Spiritual Leadership ............................................................................33
Figure 2: Organizational Knowledge Creation Process .................................................................36
Figure 3: Theory of Evidence ........................................................................................................39
Figure 4: Initial CIMO and Conceptual Framework......................................................................41
Figure 5: Word Cloud Created From the Keywords From the Primary Axial Codes Generated From the Dissertation Data Set Findings............................
Artificial intelligence: Adoption and impact on funding decisions in donor organizations
No full textThe management problem addressed in this study is that donor organizations make funding decisions that do not effectively align funding resources with global humanitarian needs.Worldwide, donor organizations fund humanitarian needs in excess of 30 billion per year. Nevertheless, a gap still exists between humanitarian needs and donor funding resources to support those needs. Global development stakeholders, including civil societies; global health, economic, and environmental consortiums; and academia, have called on donor organizations to embrace the use of artificial intelligence (AI) for its algorithmic data in making funding decisions to bridge this gap. However, donor organizations do not yet know the impact of adopting AI on funding decisions and have made no concerted effort to fully embrace it. The purpose of this study is to use a qualitative, systematic review of the evidence to assess the impact of AI adoption on funding decisions in donor organizations. The research question guiding this study is the following: Can the adoption of AI impact funding decisions in donor organizations? The evidence from extant literature is examined through the conceptual lens of theoretical frameworks and models in the fields of decision-making, the diffusion of innovations, and philanthropy. Gaps in the literature are identified. Using a systematic review and thematic synthesis to assess the literature, four main themes emerge: (i) AI’s computational support AI ADOPTION AND IMPACT ON FUNDING DECISIONS IN DONOR ORGANIZATIONS ii
optimizes funding decisions, (ii) the gap in AI adoption for funding decisions by donor organizations relates to a lack of trust in AI, (iii) knowledge-based repositories are necessary for AI machine learning, and (iv) ethics and privacy issues impact AI adoption in donor organizations. The research also provides suggestions for efficient AI adoption in donor organizations. These include (i) a collaboration between funding decision-makers and AI, in which AI’s analytics and computational capabilities serve as decision-aids to optimize funding decision outcomes, (ii) immersive and peer-supported training on AI as a decision-aid to ease trust concerns among funding decision-makers, (iii) the formation of donor coalitions to build knowledge-based repositories for machine learning to support optimal AI adoption, and (iv) ethical AI adoption. These insights are essential for donor organizations to impact the design, delivery, and effectiveness of their support of humanitarian needs through data-driven, evidence-based funding decisions.
Keywords: Donor organizations, philanthropy, artificial intelligence, diffusion of innovations, donor funding, decision-making, bounded rationality.
AI ADOPTION AND IMPACT ON FUNDING DECISIONS IN DONOR ORGANIZATIONS iii
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: ADOPTION AND IMPACT ON FUNDING DECISIONS IN DONOR ORGANIZATIONS
By
Doris Danchi Teye
Dissertation submitted to the School of Business,
University of Maryland Global Campus, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Management
2021
AI ADOPTION AND IMPACT ON FUNDING DECISIONS IN DONOR ORGANIZATIONS iv
© Copyright by
[Doris Danchi Teye]
2021
AI ADOPTION AND IMPACT ON FUNDING DECISIONS IN DONOR ORGANIZATIONS v
Dedication
To The Almighty GOD be the glory and honor!
In loving memory of my father
Joseph Danchi
Thank you for planting the seed and nurturing the desire for lifelong learning.
To my mother, Paulina Danchi
Thank you for your selfless devotion, support, encouragement, and continued prayers.
To my father who chose me, Prof. Yaw Ahenkorah
You took me as your own, and you have devotedly encouraged, counseled, supported, and provided me with opportunities that has led me to this point. I am forever indebted to you.
Thank you!
AI ADOPTION AND IMPACT ON FUNDING DECISIONS IN DONOR ORGANIZATIONS vi
Acknowledgements
I received incredible support throughout the writing of this dissertation. I would first like to thank my advisors, Dr. Raymond Marbury and Dr. Laura Witz. Dr. Marbury, thank you for your invaluable feedback, guidance, and counsel. Your calm steadiness kept me grounded throughout this process. Dr. Witz, thank you for your invaluable feedback. Your insights sharpened my thinking and provided me with clarity and refinements to my research. You have both prepared me well not only to complete this dissertation but also for future publications. To the entire doctoral program team, your commitment to excellence makes this program such an outstanding one. Thank you!
I would like to also thank Dr. Harry Parker, Dr. Lucy Bernholz, and Dr. Katherine Goldberg. Thank you for your time, extensive industry experience, and valuable literature resources that you lent to my research. You kept me focused on the applicability of the research for practitioners. Thank you for your kind support.
I am indebted to my family for their support and encouragement. To my husband Theo, who has been my staunch advocate and confidant, thank you for your unwavering love and support. My daughters Dede and Rene, your passion for truth, evidence, and what is right, is endearing. Thank you for inspiring me to great heights. To my sisters Jane, Ceci, and Nana, thank you for your constant check-ins and your continued prayers, support, and encouragement.
To my extended family, I thank you for your support. Dr. David Rickert, thank you for your care, wise counsel, and sympathetic ear. Dr. Judy Nicely Leach, I am very grateful for your kind, nurturing, and unwavering support without which the path leading to this moment would have been difficult. Mr. Robert B. Tandor, thank you for starting me on this journey from its infancy. To my friends, fellow cohort members, and colleagues, I cannot list all your names here, but you have each encouraged me in different ways and I am very grateful for all your support throughout the years. Thank you all for coming on this journey with me. I am excited to begin life’s next chapter. AI ADOPTION AND IMPACT ON FUNDING DECISIONS IN DONOR ORGANIZATIONS vii
Table of Contents
Dedication ................................................................................................................ v
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................. vi
Table of Contents ................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables .......................................................................................................... xi
List of Figures ........................................................................................................ xii
List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................. xiii
Definition of Terms ............................................................................................... xiv
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem ......................... 1
Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................... 1
Background and Overview................................................................................................ 1
Background on Artificial Intelligence ............................................................................ 2
Background on Donor Organizations ............................................................................ 3
Background on Artificial Intelligence in Donor Organizations ...................................... 4
Problem Statement ............................................................................................................ 5
Rationale for the Study ..................................................................................................... 6
The Research Question ..................................................................................................... 6
Organization of the Dissertation ........................................................................................ 7
Chapter 2: Scoping Literature Review and Theoretical Frame................................... 9
The Problem Space ........................................................................................................... 9
The Literature Landscape ................................................................................................10
Evidential Weight of Existing Research .......................................................................10
Gap in Literature ..........................................................................................................10 AI ADOPTION AND IMPACT ON FUNDING DECISIONS IN DONOR ORGANIZATIONS viii
Lack of Consensus .......................................................................................................11
Convergence of the Evidence .......................................................................................14
Theoretical Framework ....................................................................................................14
Choice of Decision-Making Theory .............................................................................15
Choice of Technology Innovation Theory ....................................................................19
Choice of Theory of Philanthropy ................................................................................23
Conceptual Framework ....................................................................................................25
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................27
Chapter 3: Method ...................................................................................................29
Review Design and Methodology ....................................................................................29
The Evidence-Based Research Framework ...................................................................29
Systematic Review ..........................................................................................................32
Systematic Review Protocol ............................................................................................33
Initiation of the Review ................................................................................................34
Search Strategy ............................................................................................................35
Database Resources .....................................................................................................35
Search Process and Terms ............................................................................................36
Exclusion and Inclusion Criteria ..................................................................................37
Search Process Flow ....................................................................................................39
Timing of the Searches.................................................................................................39
Stopping the Search Process .........................................................................................40
Study Selection ............................................................................................................40
Method of Quality Appraisal of the Included Studies .......................................................41
Analysis and Synthesis Methodology ...............................................................................46
Coding of Evidence......................................................................................................46
Method of Synthesis ....................................................................................................48
Subject Matter Experts.....................................................................................................49
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................49
Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ............................................................................51 AI ADOPTION AND IMPACT ON FUNDING DECISIONS IN DONOR ORGANIZATIONS ix
Review of the Research question .....................................................................................51
Description of the Data Set ..............................................................................................51
Search Results .................................................................................................................53
The PRISMA Diagram .................................................................................................54
Results of the Quality Appraisal of the Data Set ...............................................................55
Characteristics of the Data Set ......................................................................................56
Identifying Keyword Occurrences in Articles ...............................................................57
The Coding and Synthesis Process ...................................................................................59
Findings and Discussion ..................................................................................................64
AI’s Computational Support Optimizes Funding Decisions ..........................................64
The Gap in Artificial Intelligence Adoption Relates to Trust ........................................68
Lack of Knowledge-Based Data Repositories ...............................................................70
Ethics and Privacy Concerns ........................................................................................72
Subject Matter Experts’ (SMEs) Evaluation and Feedback ...............................................74
Summary of Findings ......................................................................................................75
Revised Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................75
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................76
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications .................................................................78
Review of the Research ...................................................................................................78
Answer to the Research question .....................................................................................79
Management Implications ................................................................................................79
Collaborate with AI for Optimal Funding Decisions .....................................................80
Build Trust in Artificial Intelligence as a Decision-Aid ................................................82
Build Knowledge-Based Repositories ..........................................................................85
Address Ethics and Privacy Concerns Impact on Artificial Intelligence Adoption .........87
Limitations of the Study...................................................................................................89
Risks of Artificial Intelligence Adoption Implementation ................................................90 AI ADOPTION AND IMPACT ON FUNDING DECISIONS IN DONOR ORGANIZATIONS x
Areas for Future Research................................................................................................90
Final Summary and Conclusion .......................................................................................91
References...............................................................................................................93
Appendix A ........................................................................................................... 113
Appendix B ........................................................................................................... 117
Appendix C ........................................................................................................... 119 AI ADOPTION AND IMPACT ON FUNDING DECISIONS IN DONOR ORGANIZATIONS xi
List of Tables
Table 1. Components of the Research Question ..............................................................................34
Table 2. Databases and Sources for Searching and Retrieving Research for Inclusion .....................36
Table 3. Fit Between Transparency, Accuracy, Purposivity, Utility, Proprietary, Accessibility, and Specificity (TAPUPAS) Dimensions and Weight of Evidence (WoE) Framework ...........................43
Table 4. Scoring of Weight of Evidence (WoE) Appraisal Benchmark ...........................................43
Table 5. List of Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) Panel ....................................................................45
Table 6. Descriptive Statistics of the Total Score of Weight of Evidence (WoE) for 57 Studies Reviewed .......................................................................................................................................55
Table 7. Count of Articles per Research Design ..............................................................................57
Table 8. Nine Code Groups Created Using Atlas.ti .........................................................................60
AI ADOPTION AND IMPACT ON FUNDING DECISIONS IN DONOR ORGANIZATIONS xii
List of Figures
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework Based on the Theory of Bounded Rationality ..............................17
Figure 2. Conceptual Framework of Humans and Artificial Intelligence (AI) Interaction for Optimal Decision-Making .............................................................................................................................18
Figure 3. Adopter Categorization on the Basis of Innovativeness ....................................................21
Figure 4. Conceptual Representation of the Adoption of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Donor Organizations Through the Theoretical Lens of Diffusion of Innovations ........................................22
Figure 5. Conceptual Representation of the Theory of Philanthropy ................................................24
Figure 6. A Conceptual Framework Of The Adoption Of AI In Funding Decisions In Donor Organizations: A Convergence of Three Theories ............................................................................26
Figure 7. Search Strategy Flowchart ...............................................................................................54
Figure 8. Word Cloud of Themes Based on Frequency of Words Appearing in Selected Articles ....58
Figure 9. Emergent Themes From the Literature .............................................................................62
Figure 10. Emergent Themes in Relation to Findings from the Literature...................................
Comparison of interventions for financial burden in oncology and non-oncology settings: Asystematic review of the literature
No full textBackground:Financial Toxicity in the cancer setting has been well established in the literature over the past 20 years. Many respected contributors in the field have defined the concepts and identified factors that contribute to financial burden. During a scoping review of the literature, very few interventions have been published that target impacting financial burden. Methods:This systematic review explored the oncology and non-oncology literature to compare the characteristics of the interventions used to address financial burden. Findings: Notable differences were seen in the literature, with non-oncology interventions utilizing community resources and setting while oncology interventions occur almost exclusively in the hospital or clinic setting. Non-oncology interventions use more quantifiable measures to track impact of interventions (such as emergency department visits, readmission rates, length of stay) while oncology interventions are more likely to be measured in subjective reporting from the patient.Oncology interventions rely more heavily on the use of a financial navigator, or dedicated resource who specializes in financial aspects of care while non-oncology utilizes nurses or pharmacists.Recommendations:Cancer centers should embrace technology driven interventions to connect patients with needed services.Examples are provided in Chapter 5.Cancer centers should explore expanding their Community Outreach and Engagement efforts to include interventions that aim to offset financial burden being delivered in the community setting. Researchers working in this space should consider study designs inclusive of measurement of indirect costs associated with cancer as well as study designs using comparator arms.Running Head: INTERVENTIONS FOR FB IN ONCOLOGY AND NON-ONCOLOGY SETTING
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ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation:
COMPARISION OF INTERVENTIONS FOR FINANCIAL BURDEN IN ONCOLOGY AND NON-ONCOLOGY SETTINGS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Theresa Marie Cummings,
Doctor of Business Administration, 2021
Background: Financial Toxicity in the cancer setting has been well established in the literature over the past 20 years. Many respected contributors in the field have defined the concepts and identified factors that contribute to financial burden. During a scoping review of the literature, very few interventions have been published that target impacting financial burden. Methods: This systematic review explored the oncology and non-oncology literature to compare the characteristics of the interventions used to address financial burden. Findings: Notable differences were seen in the literature, with non-oncology interventions utilizing community resources and setting while oncology interventions occur almost exclusively in the hospital or clinic setting. Non-oncology interventions use more quantifiable measures to track impact of interventions (such as emergency department visits, readmission rates, length of stay) while oncology interventions are more likely to be measured in subjective reporting from the patient. Oncology interventions rely more heavily on the use of a financial navigator, or dedicated resource who specializes in financial aspects of care while non-oncology utilizes nurses or pharmacists. Recommendations: Cancer centers should embrace technology driven interventions to connect patients with needed services. Examples are provided in Chapter 5. Cancer centers should explore expanding their Community Outreach and Engagement efforts to include INTERVENTIONS FOR FB IN ONCOLOGY AND NON-ONCOLOGY SETTING
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interventions that aim to offset financial burden being delivered in the community setting. Researchers working in this space should consider study designs inclusive of measurement of indirect costs associated with cancer as well as study designs using comparator arms.
Keywords: financial burden, oncology, interventions, comparison, financial toxicity
INTERVENTIONS FOR FB IN ONCOLOGY AND NON-ONCOLOGY SETTING
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COMPARISON OF INTERVENTIONS FOR FINANCIAL BURDEN IN ONCOLOGY AND NON-ONCOLOGY SETTINGS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
By
Theresa Marie Cummings
Dissertation submitted to the School of Business,
University of Maryland Global Campus, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
2021
INTERVENTIONS FOR FB IN ONCOLOGY AND NON-ONCOLOGY SETTING
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© Copyright by
Theresa Marie Cummings
2021
INTERVENTIONS FOR FB IN ONCOLOGY AND NON-ONCOLOGY SETTING
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Foreword
Many of us experience the pain and suffering associated with cancer, whether it be directly or indirectly, through the suffering of a loved one. The ultimate insult to injury seen for so many going thru this journey are the financial ramifications. My family is no exception – daily 45-minute drives, with tunnel tolls, parking in an urban environment, food, missed work, out of pocket expenses for medicines, dietary supplements, bandages – it all adds up and certainly was not factored into the budget. This journey I experienced with my father and brother motivated me to explore options that might help reduce these unintended consequences of this devastating disease. It is for them and all other families enduring cancer that I write this dissertation.
INTERVENTIONS FOR FB IN ONCOLOGY AND NON-ONCOLOGY SETTING
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Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my family, Kirk, Jason, Amber, Bob, Ann, Patty, Bob, Bill, Jim, Ruth, without whom I would have never persevered. Thank you for your understanding for the countless hours spent on the computer and in the classroom, instead of with you. Thank you for the encouragement when I got stuck along the way. Thank you for listening to my endless chatter when processing information and formulating my thoughts. And thank you for your love, without which I would be lost. INTERVENTIONS FOR FB IN ONCOLOGY AND NON-ONCOLOGY SETTING
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the following people who have helped me undertake this research: My dissertation advisor Dr. Richard Milter, for his enthusiasm for the project, for his support, encouragement, dragon-lady eye, and patience; The University of Maryland Global Campus faculty, for imparting the scholarly-practitioner mindset:
Dr. Marcia Bouchard, for threads and arrows;
Dr. Denise Breckon, for giving such sage advice;
Dr. Rose Jarrow, for reminding me to have confidence in my findings;
Ms. Cynthia Thomes, for her help with constructing the perfect search strings and database selection; Dr. Stephanie Wheeler, for your subject matter expertise;
Dr. Kevin Cullen, for asking the challenging question – why not the MBA?; My husband Kirk – I simply couldn’t have done this without you, special thanks;
My son Jason, for your editorial expertise and the many conversations;
My daughter Amber, for accompanying me on the hikes to clear my mead;
The makers of EndNote and Atlas.ti, without whom I would have truly been a boat without an oar; Dear friends, family, and of course - Baxter and Stevie; And to my parents, Bob and Ann James, who set me off on the road to this DBA a long time ago. INTERVENTIONS FOR FB IN ONCOLOGY AND NON-ONCOLOGY SETTING
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Table of Contents
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................................................... i
COMPARISON OF INTERVENTIONS FOR FINANCIAL BURDEN IN ONCOLOGY AND NON-ONCOLOGY SETTINGS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............................................................................. iii
Foreword ...................................................................................................................................................... v
Dedication ................................................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................................... vii
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................... xi
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................. xii
List of Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................................xiii Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem ......................................................... 1
Background and Overview........................................................................................................................ 1
Cancer Care in the time of COVID ......................................................................................................... 2
Problem Statement and Significance of the Problem ................................................................................ 3
Purpose of the Study and The Research Question .................................................................................... 6
Rationale for the Study or Significance of the Study ................................................................................. 7
Discussion of Concepts and/or Themes .................................................................................................... 8
Definitions and Terminology ..................................................................................................................... 9
Chapter Summary................................................................................................................................... 10
Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................................. 11 Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework, Scoping Review of the Literature and Conceptual Model ................. 13
Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................................... 13
Application of Cost of Illness Theory to Oncology .............................................................................. 15
Scoping Review of the Literature ........................................................................................................ 17
Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................................................... 23
Chapter Summary................................................................................................................................... 25 Chapter 3: Method..................................................................................................................................... 26
Review Design and Methodology ............................................................................................................ 26
The Evidence-Based Research Framework ......................................................................................... 26
Systematic Reviews ............................................................................................................................. 27
Systematic Review Process ................................................................................................................. 27
Method of Quality Appraisal of the Included Studies. ........................................................................ 30
PRISMA diagram................................................................................................................................. 31
Analysis and Synthesis Methodology. ..................................................................................................... 31
Coding Process. .................................................................................................................................. 32
Subject Matter Experts ............................................................................................................................ 33
Chapter Summary................................................................................................................................... 34 INTERVENTIONS FOR FB IN ONCOLOGY AND NON-ONCOLOGY SETTING
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Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ................................................................................................................ 35
Review of the Research Question............................................................................................................ 35
Description of Studies ............................................................................................................................. 35
Study Selection and Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria ................................................................................ 37
Quality of Studies ................................................................................................................................... 38
Quality of the Oncology Data Set ........................................................................................................ 39
Quality of the Non-Oncology Data Set ................................................................................................ 39
Findings and Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 40
Theme 1: Differences in Intervention Modality .................................................................................. 41
Theme 2: Differences in Intervention Setting ..................................................................................... 43
Theme 3: Differences in Intervention Leader ..................................................................................... 44
Theme 4: Interventions Impact on Direct Cost of Care ...................................................................... 46
Theme 5: Interventions Impact on Indirect Cost of Care.................................................................... 47
Theme 6: Interventions Impact on Psychosocial Cost of Care ............................................................ 47
Theme 7: Interventions that Bolster Individual Moderators .............................................................. 48
Theme 8: Interventions that Bolster System Moderators .................................................................. 48
Summary of Findings ............................................................................................................................... 50
Revised Conceptual Framework .............................................................................................................. 51
Characteristics .................................................................................................................................... 52
System Moderators ............................................................................................................................. 53
Chapter Summary................................................................................................................................... 53 Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications .................................................................................................... 54
Review of the Research ........................................................................................................................... 54
Answer to the Research Question ........................................................................................................... 55
Management Implications (Recommendations) ..................................................................................... 56
Modality Matters ............................................................................................................................... 56
Setting Matters .................................................................................................................................. 58
System Moderators Matter ................................................................................................................ 60
Limitations of the Study and Areas for Future Research ......................................................................... 61
Limitations of the Study ...................................................................................................................... 61
Areas for Future Research .................................................................................................................. 62
Final Summary and Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 62 References ................................................................................................................................................. 63 Appendix A ................................................................................................................................................. 82 Databases Included in OneSearch Aggregated Database Search and Findings .......................................... 82 Appendix B ................................................................................................................................................. 83 Data Extraction from Oncology Data Set .................................................................................................... 83 Appendix C ................................................................................................................................................. 94 Data Extraction from Non-Oncology Data Set ............................................................................................ 94 Appendix D ............................................................................................................................................... 121 Oncology Data Set Quality Appraisal Table .............................................................................................. 121 INTERVENTIONS FOR FB IN ONCOLOGY AND NON-ONCOLOGY SETTING
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Appendix E ............................................................................................................................................... 122 Non-Oncology Data Set Quality Appraisal Table ...................................................................................... 122
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List of Tables
Table 1: Literature describing out-of-pocket expenses as a construct of financial burden
Table 2: Literature describing OOP expenses as a % of Income
Table 3: Literature describing Lost Income as construct of Financial Burden
Table 4: Literature describing Days Missed from work as construct of Financial Burden
Table 5: Literature describing Changes in Employment as a construct of Financial Burden
Table 6: Literature describing Treatment Non-adherence as a component of Financial Burden
Table 7: Frequency of Financial Burden in Cancer (abbreviated list)
Table 8: Quality Appraisal Scores for Oncology articles
Table 9: Quality Appraisal Scores for Non-Oncology articles
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Relationship between Interventions for Financial Burden and Revenue
Figure 2: Illustration of key components of Cost of Illness Methodology
Figure 3: Cost of Care Conceptual Framework including Moderators
Figure 4: PRISMA for Interventions Reducing Financial Burdens of Cost of Care
Figure 5: Cost of Care Conceptual Framework with Findings
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List of Abbreviations
CoC – Commission on Cancer
COE – Community Outreach and Engagement
COST -- Comprehensive Score for Financial Toxicity
COVID – Corona Virus
CMS – Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services
GDP – Gross Domestic Product
MEPS -Medical Expenditure Panel Survey
NCI – National Cancer Institute
NHIS – National Health Interview Survey
OOP – Out of Pocket
PAP – Pharmacy Assistance Programs
UMGC – University of Maryland Global Campus
VAMS – Veterans Affairs Medical System
WHO - World Health Organization
INTERVENTIONS FOR FB IN ONCOLOGY AND NON-ONCOLOGY SETTING
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Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem
Background and Overview
Cancer is the third leading cause of death in the United States, causing 22% of deaths in the US in 2016 (American Cancer Society, 2019). The American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) has projected that between 2019 and 2030, the number of cancer survivors will rise form 16.9 million to 22.1 million (Miller et al., 2019). As more individuals are surviving cancer, they are left to deal with lasting side effects. These effects include physical side effects, such as surgical scars and chemotherapy related neurological deficits as well as financial side effects, such as debt incurred, changes in future earning potentials, and anxiety and strain associated with financial dependence on others. Bankruptcy in people diagnosed with cancer has, in fact, been found to be 2.65 times more prevalent than those never having a cancer diagnosis (Ramsey et al., 2013).
The research community studying the phenomenon of financial burden, financial hardship or financial toxicity associated with cancer use a variety of terms to categorize financial burden, but all agree that costs can be characterized as material costs or direct costs (co-pays, deductibles, transportation costs), in
The Road to Recovery. Adult Survivors of Adverse Childhood Experiences. Purpose and Meaning for Skills-Based Intervention
No full textThe purpose of this report is to examine the importance of relationships and environments and the significance of skills-based intervention on adult survivors of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs).Running head: ADULT SURVIVORS OF ACES. SKILLS-BASED INTERVENTION 1
The Road to Recovery. Adult Survivors of Adverse Childhood Experiences. Purpose and Meaning for Skills-Based Intervention
Mary C. Dockrill
Major: Social Sciences
[email protected]
UMGC Social Science Essay Contest
March 19, 2021ADULT SURVIVORS OF ACES. SKILLS-BASED INTERVENTION 2
Abstract
Keywords: Adverse childhood experiences, ACEs, Emotional Regulation, Skills-based interventionADULT SURVIVORS OF ACES. SKILLS-BASED INTERVENTION 3
The Road to Recovery. Adult Survivors of Adverse Childhood Experiences. Purpose and Meaning for Skills-Based Intervention
Healthy relationships and environments in a person's younger years give people what they need to stay connected and mentally strong throughout a lifetime, but what if healthy relationships were taken away or never received during childhood? Then a sense of belonging is never established. This paper will review how stunted brain development and maladaptive coping strategies due to the negative experiences that occur during childhood disrupt individuals' emotional balance and interfere with their quality of life. Abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction all play a role in adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). ACEs are linked to social, cognitive, and emotional deficiencies. Many children raised in complex maladaptive environments grow up to develop emotional regulation issues. Inadequate emotional regulation leads to intensified expressive responses. A dysregulation of emotional reactions, particularly with individuals with a history of childhood trauma, can disrupt relationships and daily functioning. Emotionally exaggerated responses displayed in eruptions of anger, passive-aggressive behaviors, and various other adverse reactions create conflict in the person's life and lead to isolation, depression, and anxiety.
This report delivers a contextualist investigation of reflection in a skills-based intervention (SBI) for ACE survivors and their path to recovery. Using the multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approach in psychology, psychiatry, sociology, and adopting a psychosocial method, this study will attempt to uncover the impact ACEs have on individuals and ways skill-based intervention can effectively reduce emotional imbalance and increase psychosocial functioning. This research essay will prove that adult patients who have endured ACE's can ADULT SURVIVORS OF ACES. SKILLS-BASED INTERVENTION 4
restore emotional balance and live healthy, productive, and emotionally-balanced lives if given trauma-informed care paired with skills-based intervention.
Analysis of Literature
Adverse Childhood Experiences
The Early Years-Developmental Impact
A person's ability to learn and succeed in life is contingent on the quality of experiences in the first years of an individual's life. The way children perceive the world, their way of thinking, and their environmental impact behaviors. According to an article in Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging (2016), prolonged periods of stress significantly disrupt the growth of a child's brain construction, producing impairment in areas of physical, emotional, and mental health. If unaddressed, the report states that posttraumatic stress, such as ACEs, can have a lifelong impact on physical, cognitive, and neurological deficits (Ahmed-Leitao, Spies, van den Heuvel, & Seedat, 2016). According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the initial years of a child's life are crucial for future health and development (2021). The CDC states that many factors are involved in how well a brain develops. Influences such as supporting and thoughtful attentiveness for a child's body and mind are essential to encouraging healthy brain development (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2021). Brain development is shaped through positive or negative experiences.
Early life stresses such as ACEs cause neurobiological changes. As previously mentioned, developmental studies have established that stress early in life prompts dysfunction in the brain and extended changes in the amygdala, resulting in behavioral effects. Part of the amygdala's function is emotion recognition, a critical role linked to social interaction and ADULT SURVIVORS OF ACES. SKILLS-BASED INTERVENTION 5
communication. A substantial body of literature details the impact of trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)- adverse childhood experiences- on brain morphology. The authors mentioned above state that childhood abuse or maltreatment is associated with long-term adverse health outcomes through emotional, behavioral, cognitive, and social pathways (Ahmed-Leitao, Spies, van den Heuvel, & Seedat, 2016). Influences of trauma experienced early in life and childhood abuse and neglect can affect the brain's growth and performance. The social consequences of those mind alterations impact the general behaviors and relational complications later in life.
Symptoms and deficiencies
Adverse experiences that occur during childhood disrupt the emotional balance and interfere with individuals' quality of life. ACEs changes a person's outlook on the world. Following physical abuse, child sexual abuse (CSA) increases the risk of psychiatric disorders in adulthood (Ahmed-Leitao, Spies, van den Heuvel, & Seedat, 2016). According to the authors of this study, sexual abuse has long- and short-term damaging effects. The authors state that sexual abuse between the ages of 3 and 5 is significantly associated with the impact of impaired brain development in the hippocampal region and increases PTSD severity later in life. Adult patients who have PTSD are typically unaware of early sexual abuse factors and the correlation contributing to a greater PTSD symptom severity. The authors claim symptoms associated with greater severity are sociodemographic factors like lower levels of education, avoidance coping, and trauma influences. Recovery is contingent on support. The increase or decrease in symptom severity is founded in people's network in that person's life and affect the emotional regulatory responses. (Ahmed-Leitao, Spies, van den Heuvel, & Seedat, 2016). Emotional imbalances due to adverse experiences without proper support promote maladaptive coping practices.ADULT SURVIVORS OF ACES. SKILLS-BASED INTERVENTION 6
Maladaptive Coping Strategies
Stress is a part of everyday life and is normal. The way individuals cope can vary among personalities. Traumatic events can lead to maladaptive ways of dealing with life. There are good ways of coping with stress, and there are not so good ways. Authors Bangasser and Valentino report that while stress responses typically start normal, continual exposure to stress, like adverse childhood experiences, becomes a maladaptive response over an extended period (Bangasser & Valentino, 2014). When a person's outlook is skewed due to ACEs or other adverse events, they typically feel powerless. The individual looks for a way out. Unfortunately, the disruption of emotional balance in a person's life has the individual turn to maladaptive coping. While healthy adaptive coping strategies increase individuals functioning, maladaptive coping strategies decrease a person's functioning. Healthy coping strategies include getting the right amount of sleep, exercising, mediation, writing, and having a supportive network of friends.
On the other hand, Maladaptive coping strategies involve behavior choices that could make matters worse, such as avoidance behaviors like using drugs, food, or alcohol or socially withdrawing. Maladaptive strategies like substance abuse evade the problem and mask the symptoms and never deal with the actual issue, leading to depression, anxiety, and isolation.
Skill-based Intervention Programs
Purpose and Meaning
Individuals who have been through trauma need support. People who have experienced trauma in their childhood have difficulty adapting and monitoring their emotions and dealing with decision-making when enduring the stresses of life. Adults with a history of ACEs need programs to assist with psychosocial concerns of emotional well-being. While there has been a ADULT SURVIVORS OF ACES. SKILLS-BASED INTERVENTION 7
wide range of research associated with ACEs and prevention initiatives, according to authors Cameron, Carroll, and Hamilton (2018), there have been fewer efforts focusing on program development to assist adults with a history of ACEs. The authors' state programs such as training for emotional regulation skills for managing the enduring impact of childhood trauma and existing life stressors are promising to diminish ACEs' consequences. The effects of programs that taught emotional regulation aids were tested in the second phase of a trial to evaluate a designed intervention's psychosocial and health outcomes to improve emotional regulation skills in adults who suffered from Adverse Childhood Experiences (Cameron, Carroll, & Hamilton, 2018). The researchers discovered that specific intervention programs could offset the psychosocial and related well-being effects.
Method Design
Community-based program
The study mentioned above used a pretest-posttest design with 92 adults enlisted in a community-based program fulfilled pre-test assessments. The adults attended a faith-based or nonspiritual version of a 12-week ACE Overcomers program. Community residents were recruited to participate in the program. Residents represented a sample population of diverse age, ethnicity, marital status, employment status, and moderate to high scores on ACE assessments. After the program was complete, post-tests were given for measurements. Both versions of the program produced equivalent improvements in an overall sense of well-being. According to the authors, this research represents a promising step in the translational research pathway into further studies using comparison groups (Cameron, Carroll, & Hamilton, 2018).
Mindfulness-based interventionADULT SURVIVORS OF ACES. SKILLS-BASED INTERVENTION 8
Another study published in Behavioural Brain Research (2021) examined variability in individuals and influences on the brain's responses. Specifically, changes in the amygdala were studied for verification of positive correlations between participants in mindful-based groups. The study examined the possibility that mindfulness intervention helped with psychological symptoms of depression, anxiety, and PTSD with adults who experienced maltreatment in their childhood (Joss, Khan, Lazar, & Teicher, 2021).
Sponsors and collaborators approved this pilot study at Massachusetts General Hospital and Mclean Hospital in Massachusetts were responsible for the safety and validity of the research (Lazar, 2018). According to Lazar, the experiment was performed on sixty subjects with childhood adverse experiences. Half of the subjects were in an 8-week mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) intervention group, and the other half were put on a waitlist (control group) and received the MBSR after the waiting period. The mindful based intervention program encompassed issues of mindfulness and awareness, view and viewpoints, being present, responding versus reacting to pressure, stress coping tactics, dealing with complicated emotions, managing challenging interactions, and using mindfulness in daily living (Joss, Khan, Lazar, & Teicher, 2021).
The pilot study's goal was to identify possible improvements in the brain's hippocampal region after the 8-week mindful-based intervention to reduce symptoms. Lazar (2018) described the administration of self-report questionnaires before and after the intervention to establish if there were changes in hippocampal volumes, perceived stress, depression, and anxiety (Lazar, 2018). According to the researchers, in this pilot study on young adults with childhood maltreatment, behavioral results were seen in the lowered emotional reaction threshold for an emotional response (Joss, Khan, Lazar, & Teicher, 2021). The analysis claimed that mindfulness ADULT SURVIVORS OF ACES. SKILLS-BASED INTERVENTION 9
intervention found results "suggesting that amygdala plasticity in adult humans is possible under proper conditions." (Joss, Khan, Lazar, & Teicher, 2021, p. 9). The researchers also maintained the young adults in the experiment experienced improved emotional responses in areas associated with self-compassion, stress reduction, and various psychological symptoms, including depression, anxiety, and PTSD, when mindfulness-based interventions were conducted.
Findings
This literature review uncovered that a person's negative experiences in their early years have a lifetime of ramifications. Based on the multidisciplinary investigation, the discovery of toxic stress offered insights into ACEs' link and later impairments in an individual's emotional regulation and overall well-being. The study found the developing brain needs a healthy and nurturing environment. In addition to a healthy environment, children need to have secure attachments to learn emotional regulation competencies that can be used later in life. Competencies learned such as positive social skills such as social awareness, sufficient assertiveness, and flexibility in interpersonal beliefs and behaviors.
With appropriate skills-based interventions, survivors are encouraged to stop thinking about themselves as having something wrong with them instead of questioning what happened. Research has uncovered that it is crucial to empower survivors and help them recognize and understand the impact of their childhood trauma. Studies found that effective interventions will help identify and assess an individual needs, nurture resiliency and teach effective coping skills.ADULT SURVIVORS OF ACES. SKILLS-BASED INTERVENTION 10
Research strengths and limitations
Strengths in Phase II ACE Overcomers Evaluation included a diverse community sample, a high degree of program integrity communicated by process evaluations, and evaluation for the program conducted by an independent research team, limiting concerns regarding bias response outcomes. Limitations highlighted were lack of comparison regarding pre-test post-test. There is still more to be explored in this area of research. Data is limited. More research needs to be performed regarding longitudinal and experimental design research to establish the connection ADULT SURVIVORS OF ACES. SKILLS-BASED INTERVENTION 11
between ACEs and the impact on emotional regulation issues and the need for skill-based interventions.
Applied outcomes.
When used effectively and purposefully, skills-based learning paired with a reflective examination and self-awareness techniques can facilitate effective recovery for ACEs in individuals. With specialized trauma-informed care (TIC) paired with interactive resources, relationships are formed, and trust is developed. Once trust is gained, an atmosphere is created, and practitioners can demonstrate skills-based learning with progressive outcomes.
Social implications.
Our ability to strengthen our society is based on knowledge and awareness of what affects individuals positively and negatively. This research has shown that toxicity in childhood has devastating effects on a child's brain development and consequences that extend into adulthood. The converging multidisciplinary investigation of social science and human development has provided a framework for a better understanding of ACEs' complexities. With this understanding, community leaders can make informed decisions on approaching this multi-faceted problem: an individual's burden and society's burden.
It is up to our community leaders to take this knowledge and build healthier communities. ACE survivors need intervention. Community leaders can help facilitate programs to strengthen communities. With appropriate support in exploring thoughts and feelings for gained insights and capitalizing on self-awareness techniques, the healing process can be achieved, but it is not an easy process. ADULT SURVIVORS OF ACES. SKILLS-BASED INTERVENTION 12
This research proved there is still more to be learned and more that needs to be done in the community. A collaborative effort should be made with families and community leaders that bring parent education to the forefront to stop ACEs by teaching the importance of strong, trusting, committed families that will build healthier communities and help protect the future generation from ACEs' effects.
Conclusions.
Using the multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approach in psychology, psychiatry, sociology, and adopting a psychosocial method, this study uncovered the impact ACEs have on individuals and ways skill-based intervention effectively reduces emotional imbalance and increases psychosocial functioning.
This report symbolized community-based programs' influential role and examined the influence of skills-based intervention and the positive impact of emotional regulation and social integration. Skills, attitudes, and beliefs were changed, and an increase in self-awareness led to positive outcomes in people who experienced ACEs. This report's preliminary work shows that particular skills create adaptability in the social regulatory interpretation of ACEs' victims. After appropriate interventions, success was measured differently in ACE survivors. The individuals could use their learned skills to make connections socially, and subjects realized that their new skills were life-enhancing and were given to them to develop a better future than their past. ADULT SURVIVORS OF ACES. SKILLS-BASED INTERVENTION 13
References
Ahmed-Leitao, F., Spies, G., van den Heuvel, L., & Seedat, S. (2016, October 30). Hippocampal and amygdala volumes in adults with posttraumatic stress disorder secondary to childhood abuse or maltreatment: A systematic review. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 256, 33-43. Retrieved from https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.umgc.edu/science/article/pii/S0925492715301001
Bangasser, D., & Valentino, R. (2014, August). Sex differences in stress-related psychiatric disorders: Neurobiological perspectives. https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.umgc.edu/science/journal/00913022, 35(3), 303-319. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.03.008
Cameron, L., Carroll, P., & Hamilton, K. (2018, May). Evaluation of an intervention promoting emotion regulation skills for adults with persisting distress due to adverse childhood experiences. Child Abuse & Neglect, 423-433. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.03.002
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Child Development. Retrieved from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/early-brain-development.html
Joss, D., Khan, A., Lazar, S., & Teicher, M. (2021, February 5). A pilot study on amygdala volumetric changes among young adults with childhood maltreatment histories after a mindfulness intervention. Behavioural Brain Research, 399.
Lazar, S. (2018, April). Neural Changes Associated With a Mindfulness-based Intervention for Young Adults With Childhood Maltreatment. Retrieved 2021, from ClinicalTrials.gov: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02447744ADULT SURVIVORS OF ACES. SKILLS-BASED INTERVENTION 1
Mitigating enterprise-level risks in storing sensitive data in the cloud: Implications for organizational leaders
No full textThis research study used enterprise risk management theory as the theoretical framework and social cognitive theory as the theoretical lens to review and synthesize empirical evidence to address how organizational leaders can mitigate enterprise-level risks by the hosting of sensitive data in the cloud. Cloud computing is defined as a “business model of sharing computing services such as platform, software, and infrastructure between multiple organizations over the internet” ( Mell & Grance, 2011, p. 2). An exploration of risks across the organization, enterprise leadership, and mitigation strategies that align with enterprise goals and strategic objectives wasconducted. This study is a systematic review of 35 studies on cloud adoption, enterprise risks, and leadership. Quality appraisals, data extraction, and data synthesis of the evidence from the selected studies were conducted, which resulted in findings and management recommendations which included (a) the need for a comprehensive enterprise risk assessment, (b) the need for the seamless integration of innovative enterprise-wide security software solutions, (c) recurring security training and awareness programs for employees, and (d) legal and regulatory compliance reviews.The research concluded that organizational leaders could mitigate the risks of cloud adoption by implementing the risk management strategies/recommendations, which would lead to improvements in system performance and overall cost reductions in information technology operational cost, ensuring that the organization remains competitive in their business domain.STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATING ENTERPRISE-LEVEL RISK IN THE CLOUD i
ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation:
MITIGATING ENTERPRISE-LEVEL RISKS IN STORING SENSITIVE DATA IN THE CLOUD: IMPLICATIONS FOR ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERS
Akpo Turhobore Okoro
Doctor of Business Administration, 2021
This research study used enterprise risk management theory as the theoretical framework and social cognitive theory as the theoretical lens to review and synthesize empirical evidence to address how organizational leaders can mitigate enterprise-level risks by the hosting of sensitive data in the cloud. Cloud computing is defined as a “business model of sharing computing services such as platform, software, and infrastructure between multiple organizations over the internet” (Mell & Grance, 2011, p. 2). An exploration of risks across the organization, enterprise leadership, and mitigation strategies that align with enterprise goals and strategic objectives was conducted. This study is a systematic review of 35 studies on cloud adoption, enterprise risks, and leadership. Quality appraisals, data extraction, and data synthesis of the evidence from the selected studies were conducted, which resulted in findings and management recommendations which included (a) the need for a comprehensive enterprise risk assessment, (b) the need for the seamless integration of innovative enterprise-wide security software solutions, (c) recurring security training and awareness programs for employees, and (d) legal and regulatory STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATING ENTERPRISE-LEVEL RISK IN THE CLOUD ii
compliance reviews. The research concluded that organizational leaders could mitigate the risks of cloud adoption by implementing the risk management strategies/recommendations, which would lead to improvements in system performance and overall cost reductions in information technology operational cost, ensuring that the organization remains competitive in their business domain.
Keywords: cloud adoption, cloud computing, cloud shared services, enterprise risk management, mitigation strategies, organizational leadership, sensitive data, social cognitive theory
STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATING ENTERPRISE-LEVEL RISK IN THE CLOUD iii
MITIGATING ENTERPRISE-LEVEL RISKS IN STORING SENSITIVE DATA IN THE CLOUD: IMPLICATIONS FOR ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERS
By
Akpo Turhobore Okoro
Dissertation submitted to the School of Business,
University of Maryland Global Campus, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
2021
STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATING ENTERPRISE-LEVEL RISK IN THE CLOUD iv
© Copyright by
Akpo Turhobore Okoro
2021 STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATING ENTERPRISE-LEVEL RISK IN THE CLOUD v
Dedication
I want to thank the Almighty God and his son Jesus Christ before thanking my family for making this journey a success. This dissertation is most especially dedicated to my loving wife, Evelyn Okoro, and my children Jite, Enite, and Runo Okoro. Evelyn is the epitome of love, sacrifice, and selflessness who held the family together while I was working on this research study. Eva, this pursuit would not have been possible without your support. From the bottom of my heart, I say, “thank you.” To Jite, Enite, and Runo Okoro, I owe you guys everything for denying you the attention you craved while this work was ongoing.
This research is also dedicated to my father, Mr. V.E Okoro (late); my mother, Mrs. Bethel Okoro; my elder brother, Mr. Ovie Okoro; and my sister in-law, Mrs. Nkechi Okoro. Mr. V.E Okoro and Mr. Ovie Okoro are the two people that helped shape my life and always believed that I could do anything, even when I doubted myself. To my brother, Ovie, I continue to say, “thank you.” To my late father, I say, you truly believed; your faith in me is what continues to propel me even though you are no longer with us.
STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATING ENTERPRISE-LEVEL RISK IN THE CLOUD vi
Acknowledgements
I want to take this opportunity to acknowledge these significant contributors that led to my success in this program:
• Dr. Wanda Wagner, my dissertation mentor, for her encouragement and guidance through this journey. Your support was instrumental to my success.
• Dr. Kathleen Edwards, your words, “Nobody ever gives up on Dr. Edwards, and Dr. Wagner,” was a motivation. Thank you.
• The UMGC faculty, administrative support staff, and my fellow cohort: The support from this group cannot be quantified. I have to mention Ms. Marina Caminis and Ms. Cynthia Thomes. “Thank you.”
• Support and prayers from my family and friends. Mrs. Edirin, Sikprako (nee Okoro), Ufuoma, Igho, Bami, Dafe, and Jero Okoro. Ms. Mayowa Ogundiyun and Mr. Paul Obi. Your words of encouragement helped me through this process.
• Mr. Dave Castille (President, FEI Systems, Inc), for supporting this journey and guiding my career growth.
STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATING ENTERPRISE-LEVEL RISK IN THE CLOUD vii
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... i
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... xii
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. xiii
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... xiv
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem ............................................. 1
Background and Overview ....................................................................................................... 1
Cloud Shared Services and Security ................................................................................... 3
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS). 3
Platform as a Service (PaaS). 4
Software as a Service (SaaS). 4
Cloud Security. 4
Enterprise Risk and Executive Leadership ......................................................................... 5
Enterprise Risk. 5
Executive Leadership. 6
Sensitive Information .......................................................................................................... 7
Problem Statement and Significance of the Problem ............................................................... 8
Research Problem ............................................................................................................... 8
Problem Significance .......................................................................................................... 9
Purpose of the Study and the Research Question ..................................................................... 9
Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................... 9
Research Question ............................................................................................................ 10 STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATING ENTERPRISE-LEVEL RISK IN THE CLOUD viii
Significance of the Study ........................................................................................................ 10
Discussion of Concepts and Themes ...................................................................................... 11
Definitions and Terminology .................................................................................................. 13
Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................... 14
Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................. 15
Chapter 2: Scoping Literature Review and Theoretical Framework ............................................ 16
Scoping Literature ................................................................................................................... 16
Information Security Theory ............................................................................................. 16
Risk Management .............................................................................................................. 20
Enterprise Risk Management (ERM) Theory .................................................................... 22
Define Corporate Philosophy and Objectives. 24
Risk Identification. 24
Quantify Risk. 25
Risk Treatment. 25
Define Risk Management Policies/Procedures. 27
Risk Control/Strategies. 27
Monitor and Communicate. 27
Review and Performance. 27
Organizational Management ............................................................................................ 29
Leadership Levels. 30
Leadership Relationships. 31
Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................... 32
Theoretical Lens: Social Cognitive Theory ...................................................................... 32
Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................................... 35
Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................... 37
Chapter 3: Method ........................................................................................................................ 38 STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATING ENTERPRISE-LEVEL RISK IN THE CLOUD ix
Research Design and Methodology ........................................................................................ 38
Evidence-Based Research Framework ............................................................................. 39
Systematic Reviews ........................................................................................................... 41
Systematic Review Process ............................................................................................... 42
Search Initiation. 43
Review Question and Methodology. 44
Search Strategy. 44
Search Process and Terms. 45
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria from the Search String. 46 Inclusion/Exclusion Scan of Article Titles, Keywords, and Abstracts. 48
Quality Appraisal of the Included Studies ........................................................................ 48
Synthesis, Data Extraction, and Coding ........................................................................... 50
Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................... 50
Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ................................................................................................. 52
Review of the Research Question ........................................................................................... 52
Description of the Dataset ....................................................................................................... 52
Results of Search String and Limiters ............................................................................... 53
Results of Scanning Titles, Keywords, and Abstracts for Inclusion and Exclusion .......... 55
Additional Study Characteristics ...................................................................................... 55
Results of the Quality Appraisal and Coding of Data ............................................................. 58
Quality Appraisal .............................................................................................................. 59
Coding and Coding Categories ........................................................................................ 60
Descriptive Themes ........................................................................................................... 63
Findings and Discussion ......................................................................................................... 65 STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATING ENTERPRISE-LEVEL RISK IN THE CLOUD x
Finding 1. Cloud Adoption by Organizational Leaders Leads to an Overall Reduction in IT Operational Cost .......................................................................................................... 66
Finding 2. The Decision to Adopt Cloud Technologies Depends on the Outcome of a Comprehensive Enterprise Risk Analysis and Assessment ............................................... 68
Finding 3. Recurring User Awareness and Cybersecurity Training Programs Reduce Security Breaches.............................................................................................................. 70
Finding 4. Innovative and Advanced Technology Software Solutions ............................. 73
Finding 5. Corporate Alignments, Contracts, Vendor Management, and Legal Implications...................................................................................................................... 75
Finding 6. Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) and Its Impact on the Successful Development of Organizational Risk Management Strategies ............................................................... 77
Finding 7. Enterprise Risk Management (ERM) Theory and the Relationship Between its Elements and the Evidence ............................................................................................... 79
Summary of Findings ........................................................................................................ 83
Revised Conceptual Model/Framework ................................................................................. 83
Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................... 86
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications ..................................................................................... 87
Answer to the Research Question ........................................................................................... 87
Management Implications (Recommendations) ..................................................................... 89
Recommendation 1 - Implementation of a Comprehensive Risk Assessment ................... 90
Recommendation 2 - Integration of Innovative Enterprise-Wide Security Solutions in the Security Plan ..................................................................................................................... 90 STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATING ENTERPRISE-LEVEL RISK IN THE CLOUD xi
Recommendation 3 - Continuous Employee Security Training and Risk Awareness Program ............................................................................................................................ 91
Recommendation 4 - Legal and Regulatory Compliance Review ..................................... 91
Limitations of the Study.......................................................................................................... 92
Areas for Future Research ................................................................................................ 94
Final Summary and Conclusion .............................................................................................. 95
References .................................................................................................................................... 98
Appendix A ................................................................................................................................ 114
Appendix B ................................................................................................................................ 126
STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATING ENTERPRISE-LEVEL RISK IN THE CLOUD xii
List of Tables
Table 1 Search Keywords ................................................................................................. 45
Table 2 Inclusion Criteria ................................................................................................. 46
Table 3 Exclusion Criteria ................................................................................................ 47
Table A1 Database Searched and Other Sources .......................................................... 114
Table A2 Rubrics ............................................................................................................ 115
Table A3 Quality Appraisal ............................................................................................ 116
Table A4 Data Extraction .............................................................................................. 118
Table B1 Dissertation Codebook .................................................................................... 126
Table B2 Coding ............................................................................................................. 129
Table B3 Mapping of Study Findings ............................................................................. 133
STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATING ENTERPRISE-LEVEL RISK IN THE CLOUD xiii
List of Figures
Figure 1 A Theory of Information Security ....................................................................... 18
Figure 2 Risk Management Evolution ............................................................................... 21
Figure 3 Enterprise Risk Management Framework .......................................................... 23
Figure 4 Management Hierarchy ...................................................................................... 30
Figure 5 Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) Model ............................................................... 33
Figure 6 Enterprise Risk Research Mitigation Model ...................................................... 35
Figure 7 The Four Elements of Evidence-Based Management (EBMgt) .......................... 39
Figure 8 The Systematic Review Process .......................................................................... 42
Figure 9 PRISMA Flowchart ............................................................................................ 54
Figure 10 Study Methodology ........................................................................................... 56
Figure 11 Organizational Sector ...................................................................................... 57
Figure 12 Country of Study ............................................................................................... 58
Figure 13 Quality Appraisal Outcome .............................................................................. 59
Figure 14 Codes and Categories....................................................................................... 61
Figure 15 Descriptive Themes – Enterprise Risk Management (ERM) Theory ................ 63
Figure 16 Descriptive Themes – Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) ..................................... 64
Figure 17 Enhanced Conceptual Risk Mitigation Model .................................................. 84
STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATING ENTERPRISE-LEVEL RISK IN THE CLOUD xiv
List of Abbreviations
• Application Programming Interface – API
• Enterprise Risk Management – ERM
• Evidence Based Management - EBMgt
• Chief Information Officer – CIO
• Context Intervention Mechanism Outcome - CIMO
• Committee of Sponsoring Organizations - COSO
• Federal Information Security Management Act – FISMA
• Infrastructure as a Service – IaaS
• National Institute of Standards and Technology – NIST
• Incident Response Plan – IRP
• Information Security Theory – IST
• Institute of Management and Accounting - IMA
• Operating System (OS)
• Personal Identifying Information – PII
• Platform as a Service – PaaS
• Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis - PRISMA
• Rules of Behavior – RoB
• Social Cognitive Theory - SCT
• Software as a Service – SaaS
• Systematic R
A guide for higher education leaders: Embedding core values into organizational culture
No full textThis research addresses the management problem identified as a lack of knowledge amongst many higher education leaders on how to properly embed core values into organizational culture. Internal and external stakeholders learn what an institution stands for from the core values, and c ore values are the foundation on which the mission, strategic planning, decision making, and individual behavior rest. Without embedded core values, no overall compulsory guiding principles exist to which team members and leaders can be held accountable. Still, core values initiatives are often begun but left unfinished. This dissertation enhances managerial knowledge by synthesizing relevant and credible quantitative and qualitative evidence collected through a systematic review process aimed at discovering best practices for inculcating core values in the organizational culture of higher education institutions. The research question guiding this study is, “What are the best practices for embedding core values into the culture of higher education institutions?” It aims to produce recommendations that assist higher education leaders in continuing the core value journey to its conclusion, entrenching core values in the culture of the organization. I use Edgar Schein’s model of organizational culture to demonstrate the goal of embedding core values at the level of underlying assumptions in organizational culture. Best practices are identified by which to embed core values at this fundamental level. The research results include 14 best practices that can be deployed to accomplish the task. Leadership as a driving force, leadership style, role modeling, and how leaders engage employees are each essential to the successful embedding of core values. Six of the best practicesare referred to as embedding tools. These tools cover a number of operational activities, from hiring methods to resource allocation. They also include, for example, rewards and recognition programs and storytelling. In sum, this research provides a guide that higher education leaders and other leaders can follow to ensure that the articulated core values of an organization become the practiced values of the organization.1
ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation:
A GUIDE FOR HIGHER EDUCATION LEADERS: EMBEDDING CORE VALUES INTO THE ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
Dawn M. Rhodes,
Doctor of Business Administration, 2021
This research addresses the management problem identified as a lack of knowledge amongst many higher education leaders on how to properly embed core values into organizational culture. Internal and external stakeholders learn what an institution stands for from the core values, and core values are the foundation on which the mission, strategic planning, decision making, and individual behavior rest. Without embedded core values, no 2
overall compulsory guiding principles exist to which team members and leaders can be held accountable. Still, core values initiatives are often begun but left unfinished.
This dissertation enhances managerial knowledge by synthesizing relevant and credible quantitative and qualitative evidence collected through a systematic review process aimed at discovering best practices for inculcating core values in the organizational culture of higher education institutions. The research question guiding this study is, “What are the best practices for embedding core values into the culture of higher education institutions?” It aims to produce recommendations that assist higher education leaders in continuing the core value journey to its conclusion, entrenching core values in the culture of the organization. I use Edgar Schein’s model of organizational culture to demonstrate the goal of embedding core values at the level of underlying assumptions in organizational culture. Best practices are identified by which to embed core values at this fundamental level.
The research results include 14 best practices that can be deployed to accomplish the task. Leadership as a driving force, leadership style, role modeling, and how leaders engage employees are each essential to the successful embedding of core values. Six of the best practices are referred to as embedding tools. These tools cover a number of operational activities, from hiring methods to resource allocation. They also include, for example, rewards and recognition programs and storytelling. In sum, this research provides a guide that higher education leaders and other leaders can follow to ensure that the articulated core values of an organization become the practiced values of the organization.
Keywords: leadership, core values, organizational culture, practiced values, embed, higher education
3
A GUIDE FOR HIGHER EDUCATION LEADERS: EMBEDDING CORE VALUES INTO THE ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
By
Dawn M. Rhodes
Dissertation submitted to the School of Business,
University of Maryland Global Campus, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
2021
4
© Copyright by
Dawn M. Rhodes
2021
v
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to the African American females in my life: See this as an example of what you can accomplish.
I also dedicate this work to my husband, Jeffery S. Rhodes. You wanted this for me, and I was finally able to accomplish the dream. RIH. vi
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my family for their constant support. I can count on each of them always to be in my corner. I specifically want to thank my mom, Jearleana Parker, and my two oldest daughters, Jordan and Taylor Rhodes. They were constantly checking to see how I was doing, encouraging me, and motivating me to keep moving forward. I could not have completed this without their belief in me. Each has been a rock for me when I needed them the most.
I must thank my dissertation mentor, Dr. Mary Jo Anderson. Her calmness, corrections, and insistence that I stop to acknowledge and celebrate milestones were invaluable to the process. She was always available. I am also thankful to Dr. Lisa Pearo, my second reader, who gave me the additional push to make this dissertation just a little bit better.
I am indebted to Cynthia Thomes, UMGC librarian, and I must thank her. She too was always accessible, willing to answer any question and provide advice. The single search string was my nemesis, and she helped me defeat it.
Thank you to my subject matter experts listed in Appendix A. Their contributions made this dissertation that much richer. The ability to compare and contrast their practical experience with the findings of the scholarly literature was essential.
I want to further thank some special members of my work family who were constantly encouraging me: Latoya Ludd and Karen Park. Thank you for understanding and cheering me on.
Finally, I thank my dissertation cohort for going through this journey with me. I think we will forever be tied together by this experience. Guess what guys? We got this! We did this!
vii
Contents
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... 11
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... 12
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem ........................................... 13
Background and Overview ........................................................................................................... 15
Problem Statement and Significance of the Problem ................................................................... 17
Problem Statement .................................................................................................................... 17
Significance of the Problem ...................................................................................................... 18
Contribution to Managerial Knowledge ....................................................................................... 19
The Research Question and Significance of the Study ................................................................. 20
The Research Question.............................................................................................................. 20
Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................... 21
Overview of a Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................... 25
Major Elements ............................................................................................................................. 27
Definitions and Terminology ........................................................................................................ 27
Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................... 29
Organization of the Dissertation ................................................................................................... 30
Chapter 2: Literature Review and Theoretical Framework .......................................................... 31
The State of the Literature ......................................................................................................... 31
Core Values ............................................................................................................................... 31
Organizational Culture .............................................................................................................. 34
Higher Education...................................................................................................................... 36
Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................................. 39 viii
The Organizational Culture Model ........................................................................................... 40
Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................................. 48
Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................... 50
Chapter 3: Method ........................................................................................................................ 51
Design and Methodology .......................................................................................................... 51
Method of Developing the Research Question ......................................................................... 56
Search Strategy .......................................................................................................................... 58
Preferred Reporting Item for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Diagram ..................... 59
Search Process ........................................................................................................................... 60
Screening .................................................................................................................................. 63
Quality Assessment ................................................................................................................... 64
Analysis and Synthesis Methodology ....................................................................................... 67
Coding Process .......................................................................................................................... 68
Subject Matter Experts .............................................................................................................. 72
Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................... 74
Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ................................................................................................. 75
Review of the Research Question ............................................................................................. 75
Description of the Data Set ....................................................................................................... 76
Results of the Quality Appraisal of the Data Set ....................................................................... 78
Coding Results .............................................................................................................................. 79
First Cycle of Coding ................................................................................................................ 80
Second Cycle of Coding ............................................................................................................ 81
Third Cycle of Coding............................................................................................................... 82 ix
Fourth Cycle of Coding ............................................................................................................. 83
Findings and Discussion ............................................................................................................... 83
Leadership Thematic Findings .................................................................................................. 84
Employee Thematic Findings .................................................................................................... 91
Embedding Tools Thematic Findings ........................................................................................ 94
Subject Matter Experts ............................................................................................................ 101
Summary of Findings .............................................................................................................. 105
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 106
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications ................................................................................... 107
Review of the Research ........................................................................................................... 107
Answer to the Research Question ........................................................................................... 109
Management Implications and Recommendations ..................................................................... 110
Management Implications ........................................................................................................110
Recommendations ....................................................................................................................110
Recommendation 5: Assess Progress and Make Course Corrections ......................................116
Shared Governance and Tenure ................................................................................................116
Limitations of the Study and Areas for Future Research ............................................................ 117
Limitations of the Study ...........................................................................................................117
Areas for Future Research ........................................................................................................118
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 120
References .................................................................................................................................. 122
Appendix A ................................................................................................................................ 133
Appendix B ................................................................................................................................ 136 x
Appendix C ................................................................................................................................ 138
Appendix D ................................................................................................................................ 140
Appendix E ................................................................................................................................ 142
Appendix F................................................................................................................................. 143
11
List of Tables
Table 1. CIMO 21
Table 2. Quality Scores 66
Table 3. Example of Data Extraction Table 68
Table 4. Categories to Themes 71
Table 5. Example of Transition Coding 80
Table 6. Example of Third Cycle of Coding 82
Table 7. Excluded Themes 83
Table 8. Summary of Findings 84
12
List of Figures
Figure 1. Theoretical Lens of Organizational Culture Model 44
Figure 2. Conceptual Framework 49
Figure 3. Systematic Review Process 54
Figure 4. PRISMA 60
Figure 5. Weight of Evidence (WoE) Framework 65
Figure 6. Study Design Types 76
Figure 7. Data Set Composition 77
Figure 8. Quality-Assessment Results 78
Figure 9. Higher Education Sources: Quality-Assessment Results 79
Figure 10. Conceptual framework 108
13
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem
Core values are also referred to as guiding principles, organizational values, cultural values, and value statements (Carucci, 2017; Gorenak & Košir, 2012; Palmer et al., 2004; Rosenthal & Masarech, 2003). Collins and Porras (2002) defined core values as “the organization’s essential and enduring tenets, not to be compromised for financial gains or short-term expediency” (p. 73). Barchiesi and La Bella (2014) offered a similar definition, describing core values as what guides an organization’s strategic direction, mission, and self-conception. The authors consider core values to be relatively unchanged over time, functioning as anchors for other constructs that may change in times of uncertainty (Barchiesi & La Bella, 2014). Palmer et al. (2004) suggested that “principles specify how employees should behave while at work and provide clarity about the contribution each employee must make to the organisation’s success” (p. 39). Palmer et al. (2004) also offered that principles make salient which behaviors are acceptable or not. Other scholars, such as Gorenak and Košir (2012), see core values as a tool to inspire the workforce and its customer base.
It remains unclear why, given that core values are important because they guide organizational behavior, that many organizations do not practice on a daily basis the values they articulate? As Barchiesi and La Bella (2014) found “Many organizations made an effort to define their core values without matching them with the day-by-day business practice” (p 161.). Core values are tools for changing behavior. If core values serve only as platitudes to posted on walls, then an opportunity for organizational improvement has been missed. Rosenthal and Masarech (2003) studied a company that experienced a core values initiative. However, four years later leaders were disappointed to find that while employees knew the values, they were not applying them to determine behaviors or to shape practices to the extent expected: “Local government 14
leaders clearly see core values as relevant but also see challenges in integrating these values in day-to-day organizational life” (Barth & Chattopadhyay, 2018, p. 262). It is likely that many leaders who decide to implement core values initiatives do not understand the full extent of what they are choosing to undertake. Although difficult, developing the words to depict the core values is perhaps the easiest part of the process. Practitioners have tended to substantively underestimate the work and time necessary for employees to genuinely accept and use the values to drive behavior and thinking. Higher education leaders have similar shortfalls when embedding core values.
The management problem addressed in this research is that many leaders in higher education do not know how to embed core values into the organizational culture (Ellis, 2019; Gluckman, 2017; Pettit, 2019). This issue pertains to management because of the far-reaching consequences of not having core values incorporated in organizational culture. Core values tell internal and external stakeholders who the organization is and what it stands for. Core values are the foundation on which mission, strategic planning, decision making, and behavior rest. Without this foundational grounding, the door is open to discord, as different parts of the organization may have different priorities. Core values connect those with differing priorities by making them teammates (Rosenthal & Masarech, 2003). Without core values, no compulsory guiding principles exist to which team members and leaders can be held accountable. Accountability is an important concept. Employees expect leaders to adhere to the same standards of accountability that employees are expected to uphold. “Employees also take note of whether the leadership team holds its members accountable for behavior consistent with the values” (Rosenthal & Masarech, 2003, p. 13). Furthermore, without them no metrics are available to use in determining organizational fit for new hires. Technical competencies and talent are important, 15
but leaders look for organizational fit also in coming to hiring decisions (Rosenthal & Masarech, 2003). A lack of core values also complicates the hiring task, which has a lasting impact on the work environment. Finally, the extent to which articulated values are practiced is a predictor of organizational performance (Carucci, 2017; Diskiene &
Questioning convention: The role of sport psychology in developing peak performance in senior business leaders
No full textResearch shows there are links between sport and business. Still, the precise blend of mental skills from
sport psychology that promote peak performance in business is not explicitly articulated in the
literature. Problem Statement: There is a tremendous amount of pressure on business leaders to
perform due to the emphasis on performance in the corporate environment. While pressure is a part of
any job, senior-level positions come with high demands from several stakeholders, and this pressure can
hinder a senior leader’s ability to perform effectively. Consequently, many senior leaders have started
opting for various techniques and coaching to overcome performing under pressure, leaning on sport
psychology principles. Research Gap: The merits of sport psychology and mental training methodology
for athletes are supported by more than thirty years of controlled research, but the transfer of the
methodology of performance enhancement to settings other than sport is a recent and undeveloped
area of study. Purpose: This dissertation explores the mental skills from sport psychology that senior
leaders can apply in a business setting to attain peak performance. Research Question: The question used to guide this reserach was:
what mental skills from sport psychology lead to peak performance in
senior leaders? Theoretical Lens: Flow theory and self-determination theory comprised the theoretical
frameworks used to conduct this systematic review. Method: Following an evidence-based
management approach, this dissertation executed a systematic review of the literature based on a
thematic synthesis approach. Findings: Upon review of the 28 articles included in the synthesis, six
mental skills were shown to enhance performance in business: a) arousal regulation, b) goal setting, c)
mental imagery, d) positive self-talk, e) attention control, and c) performance routines. Business
implications and recommendations are outlined, as well as limitations of the study and suggestions for
future research.THE ROLE OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN DEVELOPING PEAK PERFORMANCE IN BUSINESS i
Abstract
Title of Dissertation: QUESTIONING CONVENTION: THE ROLE OF SPORT
PSYCHOLOGY IN DEVELOPING PEAK PERFORMANCE IN
SENIOR BUSINESS LEADERS
Chelsea L. Barker Walsh,
Doctor of Business Administration, 2021
Research shows there are links between sport and business. Still, the precise blend of mental skills from
sport psychology that promote peak performance in business is not explicitly articulated in the
literature. Problem Statement: There is a tremendous amount of pressure on business leaders to
perform due to the emphasis on performance in the corporate environment. While pressure is a part of
any job, senior-level positions come with high demands from several stakeholders, and this pressure can
hinder a senior leader’s ability to perform effectively. Consequently, many senior leaders have started
opting for various techniques and coaching to overcome performing under pressure, leaning on sport
psychology principles. Research Gap: The merits of sport psychology and mental training methodology
for athletes are supported by more than thirty years of controlled research, but the transfer of the
methodology of performance enhancement to settings other than sport is a recent and undeveloped
area of study. Purpose: This dissertation explores the mental skills from sport psychology that senior
leaders can apply in a business setting to attain peak performance. Research Question: The question
THE ROLE OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN DEVELOPING PEAK PERFORMANCE IN BUSINESS
ii
used to guide this research was: what mental skills from sport psychology lead to peak performance in
senior leaders? Theoretical Lens: Flow theory and self-determination theory comprised the theoretical
frameworks used to conduct this systematic review. Method: Following an evidence-based
management approach, this dissertation executed a systematic review of the literature based on a
thematic synthesis approach. Findings: Upon review of the 28 articles included in the synthesis, six
mental skills were shown to enhance performance in business: a) arousal regulation, b) goal setting, c)
mental imagery, d) positive self-talk, e) attention control, and c) performance routines. Business
implications and recommendations are outlined, as well as limitations of the study and suggestions for
future research.
Keywords: flow, flow theory, mental skills, peak performance, self-determination theory, senior
leader, sport psychology
THE ROLE OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN DEVELOPING PEAK PERFORMANCE IN BUSINESS
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QUESTIONING CONVENTION: THE ROLE OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN DEVELOPING PEAK PERFORMANCE
IN SENIOR BUSINESS LEADERS
By
Chelsea L. Barker Walsh
Dissertation submitted to the School of Business,
University of Maryland Global Campus, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
2021
THE ROLE OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN DEVELOPING PEAK PERFORMANCE IN BUSINESS
iv
© Copyright by
[Chelsea L. Barker Walsh]
2021
THE ROLE OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN DEVELOPING PEAK PERFORMANCE IN BUSINESS
v
Preface
This dissertation is an original and intellectual product that I hope will benefit senior leaders in a
business setting. I was a Division I student-athlete and coached at the Division I level for five years. As a
coach, I facilitated mental skills training for student-athletes. The mental skills and techniques I learned
as an athlete and coach have made me a more effective manager in higher education. My aims with this
dissertation were twofold: a) to explore the connection between sport and business and gain a better
understanding of the strength of that connection, and b) to identify what mental skills from sport
psychology may be applicable in a business setting and determine whether these mental skills can lead
to peak performance in senior-level leaders.
Chelsea Barker Walsh, M.Ed.
Pikesville MD, December 2021
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Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to my wife, Kiera Barker Walsh, and my four cats, Fitch, Abbie,
Clifton, and Poe. Kiera, your unwavering love, support, and selflessness made this possible. There are no
words to express how thankful I am to have you in my life. I love you with my entire being. To my four
fur babies, I may have finished this dissertation sooner if you hadn’t sat on my laptop when I tried to be
productive. Regardless, my love for you all is unconditional.
I also dedicate this dissertation to my mother, Pamela Barker, and my two sisters, Amanda
Barker and Hillary Barker. Each of you played a role in the completion of this dissertation, even from
afar. Mom, thank you for always reminding me that I can do anything I set my mind to. Amanda, I am so
grateful that you are my other half, my twin. Hillary, I am who I am because you are in my life. You are
the reason I am so dedicated and ambitious. I am reaching for the stars and living life to the fullest for
you. I hope this accomplishment makes you all proud.
Lastly, I dedicate this dissertation to first-generation college students that question whether
they have what it takes to succeed in higher education. See this as an example of what you can
accomplish.
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Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my wife, Kiera Barker Walsh, for her tireless support, patience, and
encouragement. Thank you for making dinner every night, for understanding that my weeknights and
weekends were stolen by this document, for helping me cope with the stress, for celebrating every
milestone with me, and for reassuring me every day that I could do it. I would not have been able to
accomplish earning my doctorate without you. Thank you from the bottom of my heart for believing in
me and being my #1 fan.
Thank you to the outstanding faculty and staff at UMGC. Thank you to Dr. Denise Breckon for
working with me on my first publication and Dr. Tacy Holliday for being an inspirational professor and
mentor. Thank you to UMGC’s Academic Program Coordinator, Marina Caminis, for taking the time to
reach out and have lunch with me, letting me vent about this arduous journey. I owe a huge thank you
to my advisor, Dr. Joseph Drasin, for his unwavering support. Thank you for your guidance and constant
reminders that this is not a linear process and that iterations equal progress. I am so grateful for the
time you invested in me and your interest in my research topic. You ensured that I produced a quality
product that I would be proud of. Thank you to my second advisor, Dr. Deborah Wharff, for challenging
me in the best ways. Without the advice, guidance, and support from Dr. Drasin and Dr. Wharff, this
dissertation would not have come to fruition. I was fortunate to have you both guide me through this
dissertation process.
I would like to give special thanks to my subject matter experts for taking the time to review my
work, share your feedback, insights, and perspectives to strengthen my dissertation document. Finally, I
must acknowledge my cohort, of course, as they have motivated me to keep going throughout this
entire journey. I could not have asked for a better group of people to go through this experience, and I
am grateful to have met you. We did it!
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Table of Contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... i
QUESTIONING CONVENTION: THE ROLE OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN DEVELOPING PEAK PERFORMANCE
IN SENIOR BUSINESS LEADERS ..................................................................................................................... iii
Preface ......................................................................................................................................................... v
Dedication ................................................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................................................... vii
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................................ x
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................................. xi
List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................................. xii
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of the Management Problem ......................................................... 1
Background and Overview........................................................................................................................ 1
Mental Skills ............................................................................................................................................. 4
Mental Toughness ................................................................................................................................ 4
Problem Statement .................................................................................................................................. 6
Significance of the Problem ....................................................................................................................... 8
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................................ 9
Research Question ................................................................................................................................. 10
Rationale for the Study ............................................................................................................................ 11
Definitions and Terminology ................................................................................................................... 12
Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................................. 14
Chapter 2: Scoping Literature Review and Theoretical Framework ........................................................... 15
Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................................... 15
Flow Theory ........................................................................................................................................ 16
Self-Determination Theory ................................................................................................................. 21
Scoping Literature Review ....................................................................................................................... 23
Background of Sport Psychology ........................................................................................................ 24
Leadership in Sport and Business ....................................................................................................... 27
Similarities Between Sport and Business ............................................................................................ 29
Differences Between Sport and Business Leaders .............................................................................. 32
High-Performance Pyramid Model ..................................................................................................... 34
Flow, Peak Experience, and Peak Performance .................................................................................. 38
Initial Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................................. 50
Chapter Summary................................................................................................................................... 51
Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 52
Review Design and Methodology ............................................................................................................ 52
The Evidence-Based Research Framework ......................................................................................... 53
Evidence-Based Management ............................................................................................................ 53
Systematic Reviews ............................................................................................................................. 55
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Rigor, Relevance, and Transparency ................................................................................................... 57
Systematic Review Process ................................................................................................................. 58
PRISMA diagram................................................................................................................................. 71
Method of Synthesis ........................................................................................................................... 72
Coding Process ................................................................................................................................... 74
Subject Matter Experts ............................................................................................................................ 75
Chapter Summary................................................................................................................................... 76
Chapter 4: Analysis and Findings ................................................................................................................ 78
Review of the Research Question............................................................................................................ 78
Description of the Data Set ..................................................................................................................... 79
Results of the Quality Appraisal of the Data Set ...................................................................................... 80
Data Extraction ....................................................................................................................................... 81
Coding Process ....................................................................................................................................... 81
CERQual Method ................................................................................................................................ 83
Findings .................................................................................................................................................. 85
Mental Skills Findings .......................................................................................................................... 86
Subject Matter Experts’ (SMEs) Evaluation and Feedback ...................................................................... 96
Summary of Findings ............................................................................................................................... 96
Revised Conceptual Model ...................................................................................................................... 96
Chapter Summary................................................................................................................................... 97
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications .................................................................................................... 98
Review of the Research ........................................................................................................................... 98
Findings ................................................................................................................................................ 100
Leadership Implications and Recommendations ................................................................................... 100
Implication 1. Applying mental skills in business must be approached with caution due to a lack of
empirical evidence. ........................................................................................................................... 101
Implication 2. Goal setting had the most empirical support to enhance performance in business. 102
Implication 3. Strategies can be used to control arousal levels in business ..................................... 104
Implication 4. Leaders can practice mental skills on their own ........................................................ 106
Limitations of the Study ........................................................................................................................ 109
Areas for Future Research ..................................................................................................................... 111
Final Summary and Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 112
Appendix A ............................................................................................................................................... 143
Appendix B ............................................................................................................................................... 144
Appendix C ............................................................................................................................................... 145
Appendix D ............................................................................................................................................... 146
Appendix E ............................................................................................................................................... 147
Appendix F ............................................................................................................................................... 148
Appendix G ............................................................................................................................................... 154
Appendix H ............................................................................................................................................... 165
Appendix I ................................................................................................................................................ 166
Appendix J ................................................................................................................................................ 167
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List of Tables
Table 1 Traditional versus Modern Coaching ............................................................................................ 28
Table 2 Perceived Differences Between Sport and Business Leadership ................................................... 33
Table 3 Mental Skills Used by Athletes ...................................................................................................... 49
Table 4 S