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E-books and electronic publishing for scholarship and academic libraries

Author: Miller Stephen
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 02/05/2012
Field of study

The increasing acceptance of E-books in the consumer market in 2011 and new digital online-only publishing possibilities raise important and difficult questions for scholarship and academic libraries. Questions such as how academic libraries should acquire, provide, and preserve E-book resources, the implications of E-books and large E-book collections online for scholarship, how authority and value may be determined for E-books and online-only publications, how and if E-books will displace print books, and how publishers, licensing, and copyright affects the economics of E-book publishing are critical as technology and market forces propel us towards increasingly prevalent electronic texts. Stephen Miller, Associate Provost for Information and Library Services will present on the current trends in technology, publishing, and libraries that stand to affect us in the future.E-BOOKS AND ELECTRONIC PUBLISHING FOR SCHOLARSHIP AND ACADEMIC LIBRARIES UMUC Faculty Research Seminar Stephen Miller, Associate Provost for Information and Library Services May 2, 2012 Scope •What’s on the table: •Scholarly monographs, edited scholarly editions, reference works, professional/popular non-fiction, etc. •What’s not: •Textbooks, popular fiction, etc. SETTING THE STAGE Photo from Flicker user koraphotomorgana, used under Creative Commons License. Book as a Technology and Social System •A book is a technology •Fundamentally, books as a phenomenon are a communication technology, supported by a complex social and business infrastructure •Interplay of technology and social infrastructure of the book – the “culture of the book” (Striphas, 2009) Defining E-books •E-Book: “a book composed in or converted to digital format for display on a computer screen or handheld device” (Merriam-Webster) Container vs. Content? Genre is Critical Conversion or “Born Digital”? Electronic Text vs. E-Readers Affordances •The activities that a physical object allows or makes possible (Sellen & Harper, 2002, p. 17) Photos from Flicker users ArcaHeradel and bogenfreund, used under Creative Commons License. Affordances •The activities that a physical object allows or makes possible •The physical properties of paper afford the human actions of grasping, carrying, folding, writing, etc. (Sellen & Harper, 2002, p. 17) Some Affordances of Print Books •Ease of reading •Portability •Length and genre communicated by physical appearance •Annotation and notation in context •“Serendipitous discovery” through browsing •“Scannability” – easy to skim, find passages through spatial memory •Scholarly practice of organization by physical arrangement of texts Some Affordances of E-Books •Searchability – within a single book and across vast collections •Instant delivery •Centralized “cloud” storage, device independent •Linking to supplemental materials (Lynch, 2010) •Re-organization, alternate navigation schemes possible (Lynch, 2010) McLuhan’s Four Questions for Media •What is enhanced? •What is made obsolete? •What is retrieved from the past? •What will the medium reverse into? (McLuhan & McLuhan, 1992) What is Enhanced? •Speed of production and flexibility of distribution •Physical production/warehousing costs negated •“Long tail” effects – more books published •No physical space required (or real limitations) •Cut/paste and share book content (within imposed limits) •Quickly update/correct/add additional content •Access on multiple devices •Searchability •Self-publishing What is Made Obsolete? •Physical books on paper and their associated experience and affordances •Large physical bookstores •Ownership: ability to loan, trade, share (now controlled by licensing) •Used books •Books as décor, status symbols •Traditional publishers? •Individual authors? (Human authors?) •Libraries as lenders and as cultural record? What is Brought Back? •Scroll-like, flowing text rather than firmly deliniated pages •Tablet-like reading devices (similar to slates, wax tablets) •Changeability, unfixed-ness •Return to a more unified universe of knowledge through blurring of disciplinary boundaries (via searching, linking) What Will it Reverse Into? •The Internet (??) •Skimming, smaller text chunks •Video and graphic elements as distractions (books as “movies” (Dyck & Sturgess, n.d.)) •Texts overwhelmed by conversations, social media sharing and annotation, etc. •Lack of in-depth reading, users unable to hold sustained argument and attention, less comprehension SOME RECENT HISTORY (noaa.gov) The Book Publishing Industry •Consumer/trade Publishing •“The Big 6” •Smaller publishers •Academic Publishing •University presses •New role of technology companies: Amazon, Google, Apple General Trends •More books published each year (316,000+ new titles in 2010) •Sales declining, even when including e-books •Average non-fiction book sells very few copies - limited market and readership •Smaller revenues per book, thin margins (Piersanti, 2012) •Large publishers increasingly rely on blockbusters, short-term focus (Thompson, 2012) The E-Book Explosion (Thompson, 2012) Disruptive Innovation Clayton Christensen’s Model of Disruptive Innovation (Christensen, 2012) Publishers vs. Google •Google Print (later Google Books) begun in 2004 •A number of the largest academic libraries agree to participate and provide books for scanning •Author’s Guild and Association of American Publishers sues in 2005 •Settlement agreement reached, rejected by the U.S. Court of Appeals in 2010, trial in 2012 (Hannay, 2011) Publishers vs. Libraries •HathiTrust research library partnership developed to store copies of books scanned by Google and Internet Archive •Sued by the Author’s Guild in 2011 •Overdrive, Inc., as intermediary for public libraries •Characterized by publisher restrictions on e-books, searching for pricing models, some pulling out all together Apple vs. Amazon •Amazon selling e-books as “loss leaders” to gain market share for Kindle books and readers •5 of the “Big 6” publishers worked with Apple to develop “Agency” pricing model in 2010, Amazon forced to accept – Publishers control prices •U.S. Dept. of Justice sued in 2012, alleging collusion and violation of anti-trust laws (Bray & Kendall, 2012, April 11) Microsoft and B&N Truce (April 30, 2012) •Settle patent litigation •Form new subsidiary of B&N for digital textbooks and e-books •Nook application in Windows 8 (Chon & Ovide, 2012, April 30) E-Books in Academic Libraries •Licensed Collections through Vendors, for example: •Safari (O’Reilly) •Books 24x7 •Ebooks on EBSCOhost •Aggregator Databases, for example: •Business Source Complete •Education Research Complete •Freely Available Online, for example: •Google Books •Project Gutenberg •Internet Archive E-Books in Academic Libraries •Vendor Reference Collections – Subject Encyclopedias •UMUC examples: •SAGE Reference Online •Oxford Reference Online •Gale Virtual Reference Library E-Book Issues for Academic Libraries •Ensuring longevity and preservation with licensing models •Digital Rights Management •Different pricing structures from different vendors •Different interfaces, platforms, levels of user experience and functionality •Metadata and cross-searching •Leveraging consortial purchasing power and demand to obtain collections and licenses from publishers and aggregators University Presses •Focus on “scholarly ecosystem” – scholarly publishers, libraries, universities, scholars (AAUP, 2011) •Provide: •Scholarly monographs •Journals •Reference/research databases •Primary customer is academic libraries, especially research libraries (Lynch, 2010) Why not Disintermediate the Publishers? •Printing and physical distribution = 1/5 of the cost of a book •Publishers provide: •Selection and vetting, mark of quality •Editing and editorial input •Presentation and marketing expertise •Coordinating new markets •Metadata creation and enhancement •Long-term availability, back-end storage, and file formatting (AAUP, 2012) University Presses • Multiple business models, revenue streams needed in the future •New Approaches: •Open digital editions w/print-on-demand or short-run printing •Open access publishing •Sales through aggregators and direct to consumers •Experimental publishing projects •Collaborations with university libraries (AAUP, 2012) •Overall, print books and E-books will co-exist for scholarship for the foreseeable future (Lynch, 2010; AAUP, 2012) Some Important Current Initiatives •Digital Public Library of America •A “large-scale digital public library that will make the cultural and scientific record available to all” (dp.la/about) •Directory of open access books •http://www.doabooks.org/ •Metadata sharing and linked data to enhance discovery – Harvard Library Open Metadata project RECENT INNOVATIONS E-Books as Platforms and Cloud Infrastructure Applications Rather Than Hardware; Amazon’s Kindle as an Example E-book Platforms (Product images from apple.com; amazon.com; bn.com) Screenshot from “Amazon Kindle X-Ray Demo” by user laptopmag on YouTube.com Kindle X-Ray Feature Screenshot from “Amazon Kindle X-Ray Demo” by user laptopmag on YouTube.com Screenshot from “Amazon Kindle X-Ray Demo” by user laptopmag on YouTube.com Screenshot from “Amazon Kindle X-Ray Demo” by user laptopmag on YouTube.com WHAT TO DO WITH A MILLION BOOKS Google Books and the N-Gram Viewer E-BOOK INNOVATIONS One-off Apps Showing the Current Potential and Designer’s Visions of the E-Book Capabilities of the Future The Waste Land for iPad from Touch Press www.touchpress.com The Waste Land for iPad from Touch Press www.touchpress.com The Waste Land for iPad from Touch Press www.touchpress.com IDEO Future Books – Social Network Reading (http://vimeo.com/15142335) IDEO Future Books – Interactive visualizations (http://vimeo.com/15142335) IDEO Future Books – Discussions attached directly within the text (http://vimeo.com/15142335) Al Gore’s Our Choice – iPad Book from Push Pop Press (http://www.pushpoppress.com) THANK YOU. Photo from Flicker user koraphotomorgana, used under Creative Commons License. References AAUP Task Force on Economic Models for Scholarly Publishing. (2011, March). Sustaining scholarly publishing: New business models for university presses. New York, NY: Association of American University Presses. Retrieved from: http://www.aaupnet.org Christensen, C. M. (2012). Disruptive Innovation. In M. Soegaard and R.F. Dam (eds.), Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction. Aarhus, Denmark: The Interaction-Design.org Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/disruptive_innovation.html. Brantley, P. (2012, February 3). Academic e-books: Innovation and transition. Publisher’s Weekly. Retrieved from www.publishersweekly.com. Bray, C., & Kendall, B. (2012, April 11). U.S. sues Apple, publishers over e-book pricing. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from http://online.wsj.com Chon, G., & Ovide, S. (2012, April 30). Microsoft to invest in Barnes & Noble’s Nook. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from http://online.wsj.com Dyck, J. & Sturgess, T. (n.d.) The emerging importance of the e-book and its impact on publishing. Retrieved from http://judithdyck.shawwebspace.ca Hadro, J. (2011, February 25). HarperCollins puts 26 loan cap on ebook circulations. Library Journal. Retrieved from http://www.libraryjournal.com/lj/home/889452-264/harpercollins_caps_loans_on_ebook.html.csp Hannay, B. (2011, November 9). The long arm of the law. Presentation at the 2011 Charleston Conference, Charleston, SC. Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/CharlestonConference/the-long-arm-of-the-law-presentation-by-bill-hannay-schiff-hardin-llp Hardy, Q. (2012, April 24). Harvard releases big data for books. The New York Times. Retrieved from bits.blogs.nytimes.com Kelley, M. (2012, February 9). Penguin Group Terminating its contract with Overdrive. Library Journal. Retrieved from http://www.thedigitalshift.com/2012/02/ebooks/penguin-group-terminating-its-contract-with-overdrive/ Kelley, M. (2011, September 21). Amazon and OverDrive roll out Kindle books for libraries. Library Journal. Retrieved from http://www.libraryjournal.com/lj/home/892118-264/amazon_and_overdrive_roll_out.html.csp Lynch, C. (2010). Imagining a university press system to support scholarship in the digital age. Journal of Electronic Publishing, 13(2). Doi: 10.3998/3336451.0013.207 McLuhan, M., & McLuhan, E. (1992). Laws of media: The new science. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press. Michel, J., Shen, Y.K., Aiden, A.P., Veres, A., Gray, M.K. Google Books Team, Pickett, J.P., … & Aiden, E.L. (2010). Quantitative analysis of culture using millions of digitized books. Science, 331(6014), 176-182. doi:10.1126/science.1199644 Piersanti, S. (2012, March 6). The 10 awful truths about book publishing. Retrieved from http://www.scribd.com Striphas, T. (2009). The late age of print. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Thompson, J.B. (2012). Merchants of culture: The publishing business in the twenty-first century (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Plume. Product images and screenshots used under title 17 United States Code section 107 for the purposes of teaching, comment, scholarship, and criticism

Lithics visualization project for analysis of patterns and aesthetic presentation

Author: Berryhill Georgia Gene; Levy, Thomas E; Manovich, Lev
Publication venue: College Art Association (CAA)
Publication date: 22/02/2012
Field of study

This presentation uses digital image processing and new visualization techniques to analyze a set of 500 late Pre-Neolithic B (ca. 7500 – 6000 BCE) arrowheads from Jordan. Berryhill is a photographer and art historian who works at the intersection of art and scientific visualization, Levy is an anthropological archaeologist who leads a team in developing digital tools for field and laboratory research, and Manovich is a new media theorist who directs a lab that is developing visualization techniques for working with large image sets.Title: “Lithics Visualization Project for Analysis of Patterns and Aesthetic Presentation” Presenter Author: Georgia Gene Berryhill, University of Maryland - UMUC Co-authors: Thomas E. Levy, University of California, San Diego, Lev Manovich, University of California, San Diego. Our project uses digital image processing and new visualization techniques to analyze a set of 500 late Pre-Neolithic B (ca. 7500 – 6000 BCE) arrowheads from Jordan. Berryhill is a photographer and art historian who works at the intersection of art and scientific visualization, Levy is an anthropological archaeologist who leads a team in developing digital tools for field and laboratory research, and Manovich is a new media theorist who directs a lab that is developing visualization techniques for working with large image sets. We employed digital image processing software to measure a number of visual attributes of every arrow from the high-resolution digital photographs, including texture, colors, shape, and contour. We then used HIPerSpace tiled supervisualization system (286,720,000 pixels) to interactively organize images of the arrowheads according to dozens of different combinations of their attributes, while exhibiting aesthetic qualities. The presentation will discuss new patterns and insights enabled by this new research methodology. This approach transcends traditional archaeological and artistic approaches to material culture. Keywords: Lithics Digital photography Neolithic Jordan Archaeology New Media Art History HIPerSpace Cultural Analytics 1 Title: “Lithics Visualization Project for Analysis of Patterns and Aesthetic Presentation” Presenter Author: Georgia Gene Berryhill, University of Maryland - UMUC Co-authors: Thomas E. Levy, University of California, San Diego Lev Manovich, University of California, San Diego More than a year ago due to a special event, Fulbright Association colleagues opened doors for me to experience projects going on at the California Institute for Telecommunications and Information Technology (Calit2). What caught my interest specifically was the Center of Interdisciplinary Science for Art, Architecture, and Archaeology (CISA3). CISA3 develops “new tools and techniques to reconstruct and analyze the history of great works [of] art, monumental structures as well as archaeological sites and artifacts.”1 These entities collaborate with the Jacob’s School of Engineering and the Divisions of Arts and Humanities and Social Science at UCSD. [fig. 1] Knowing of my previous documental photography projects plus interests in how art, science and technology have blended together historically, fellow Fulbrighters at UCSD encouraged me to talk with Tom Levy, distinguished professor of anthropology/archaeology and associate director of CISA3. After contacting Tom and providing some photo samples of previous projects, he invited me to the UCSD campus for a meeting to look over their sizable collection of Jordanian artifacts. The small pressure flaked Neolithic arrowheads [fig. 2] especially intrigued me and within two weeks, a lab location was set up with photo equipment. My initial goal was to shoot 500 images of these prehistoric tools, the size of each piece averaging about an inch (2.54 cm) in length, for their department’s digital databases. As I photographed them, they were 2 loaded into Lightroom software with pertinent metadata for the analytics. [fig. 3] During the recording process and after a serendipitous weekend experienced in Monterey, California’s art museums, a new idea unfolded into something unexpected— photographing the lithic tools for an interactive cultural analytics project—and, potentially more. [fig. 4] As an artist/art historian, it dawned on me to also present them as an aesthetic art piece, displaying an integrated blend of art, craft, technology, history and science. After shooting several of the Neolithic flints and some experimentation, [figs. 5 & 6] I made a two-dimensional mock up of several of the arrowheads in an array pattern. [fig. 7] After discussing the idea with Tom Levy, he contacted Lev Manovich, professor of New Media at UCSD, also a Calit2 associate. Tom, Lev and I met with graduate student Vid Petrovic in Calit2 located on the UCSD campus, who uploaded my first set of high-resolution photos into the HIPerSpace digital display. {figs. 8-13] This ultra-scale visualization environment is close to 32 feet wide and 7.5 feet tall and is made up of a multi-tiled system of 70 Dell displays arranged in columns. The combined resolution of the network is more than 286.7 million pixels. It was exciting to see the small arrowheads blown up to nearly twelve feet long on the giant screen. We were awestruck by the beauty and craftsmanship of the Neolithic flint-knappers’ detailed work. Tom was especially interested in how Lev’s cultural analytics tool kit could be used to identify meaningful archaeological patterns within the large collection of 500 arrowheads; Lev was interested in applying his algorithms to a different realm of material culture. 3 However, along with the camera’s macro lens’ high magnification, came increased ability to see soft shadowing and subtle debris--essentially unwanted details for blue screen. [fig. 14] Lev indicated that even small traces of drop shadow would not be suitable for algorithm software applications. A new challenge arose to work out lighting and equipment set ups that would eliminate the shadowing while still visually describing the form and delicate intricacies of the lithics. Through some experimentation, a successful solution was reached by utilizing a small high quality light box, evenly balanced desktop level lighting and reflectors. I proceeded to re-shoot approximately 250 arrowheads using these techniques. Dorsal and ventral views of each arrowhead were photographed with a cm scale included, and then cataloged with individual metadata within Adobe Lightroom software. Small samples were developed for testing. The next critical step was conducted with Lev and his associate, Jeremy Douglass who loaded the first sample set of 100 of the prepped images to check suitability and for the purpose of archaeological categorizations such as location, size, shape, type, color, locus and basket. [fig. 15] Lithics Background [fig. 16] As is generally known, the Neolithic period had its own technological advances and instigated significant social change due to the domestication of plants and animals necessitating the establishment of settlements. The resulting chipped stone tool production led to a variety of useful implements. These lithics are important for archaeological research and artifact studies within their context as the small, stone pieces from the Neolithic (PPN) period ((8500-5500 BCE) are more durable than other types of material culture. The arrowheads or points are also important for material culture study 4 and warrant broader investigation in themselves. In southern Jordan’s copper ore Faynan district, the PPNB arrowheads used in this study come from the site of Tel Tifdan excavated by UCSD and Department of Antiquities of Jordan archaeologists in 1999. The term “lithics” covers a range of these crafted tools, from larger hammer stones and blades from naviform blade cores, projectile points, scrapers, drills and small bead piercing tools. The naviform core size was determined based on the types of tools desired by the Neolithic stone chippers. The cores are important as they are quite distinct and representative of the PPNB lithic technology found throughout the eastern Mediterranean region.2 There are non-formal and formal lithic categories. The non-formal or ‘ad hoc’, so named by Steven Rosen in Levy and Rosen’s article on chipped stone industry3 shows little evidence of retouching. Our lithic of focus, the arrowhead, point or projectile, is a formal tool and was used primarily for hunting. It represents the greater number of lithics found in this region of Jordan known as Faynan of the southern Levant. [fig. 17] Three categories of arrowheads are included in our project: Jericho, Byblos and Amuq points. Most of the arrowheads in this collection are of the latter two types. There are two basic parts that make up the arrowhead—the body and the tang. The body is the wider section and the tang is the more narrowed end. Briefly, Jericho points have tangs that are often triangular in shape and have angles of 90 degrees or less. The Byblos point is generally recognized as having tangs that show angles greater than 90 degrees and are often asymmetrical. Amuq points look more leaf-shaped and elongated. 4 [fig. 18] Overall appearance of a typical arrowhead on the dorsal view shows multi-facets angling along both sides of a raised spine which may or may not have a narrow flattened 5 ridge running centrally down the length of the tang and body. The ventral view or backside is mostly flat. Flint-knapping technique used to render the points is a method that has been practiced for thousands of years by different people groups in various parts of the world. There are two types of flint-knapping: percussion flaking and pressure flaking.5 In basic terms, a hand-sized rounded hammer stone consisting of a non-flaking type of rock such as granite or sandstone is used to hit the edges with a downward strike (percussion flaking) on a concoidal fracture stone. Once a suitable flake for an arrowhead is dislodged through the striking motion and shaped by additional knapping (pressure flaking), final steps may be taken using a small tool such as an animal horn or antler to further crimp and refine the edges. The pressure technique is applied on the dorsal and ventral sides. Some typical stones found from the Jordanian excavation are flint and basalt. After 15 years of research in Jordan, thanks to the generosity of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan, UCSD holds a sizable collection of artifacts from the Faynan region on permanent loan and our arrowhead assemblage is derived from this collection. Wadi Faynan is centrally located in Jordan in the administrative district of At Tafilah (latitude 30.63, longitude 35.45). The area is 154 kilometers (about 96 miles) south of the capital city of Amman but closest to the city of Aquaba which is just across the border from Israel’s city of Eilat. The word, “wadi” is Arabic for valley, streambed or gully and these are extremely dry except during rainy seasons where severe flooding may occur. The “Siq” in Petra is an example of what this type of extreme flooding can create. [fig. 19] Every year, Levy’s team of professors, graduate and undergraduate students, colleagues and volunteers sets up camp with tents and labs close to the excavation. They 6 proceed with the proposed work and for several weeks, students are taught the practices and methods of field archaeology. Recording information accurately about the strata and found objects is paramount, as once an area has been excavated, it cannot be reversed. General to specific protocol is employed such as site > area > square > locus > basket>shape or type. Each item is collected with this specific information recorded on the front of its plastic baggie and on the ventral side of the arrowhead. [fig. 20] Here is an example of procedure taken from Tom Levy’s forthcoming book, The Mountains were of Copper: 10,000 years of Ancient Mining and Metallurgy in Faynan, Jordan: Excavations at Tell Tifdan began in June, 1999, and lasted for approximately 10 weeks. Approximately 50 students, staff and workmen were involved in the field work which concentrated on two areas: J and M. A total of seventeen 5 x 5 meter squares were excavated covering an area of ca. 425 m2. Four major strata were identified at the site and labeled from surface downward as Strata I, IIA, IIB, and III.7 The site was initially sectioned off into areas that were to be excavated. Within these, they mapped out 5 x 5 meter squares on the surface. The next step involved assigning locus numbers with a total of 259 loci (places in layers of earth or human made features such as walls, floors, spaces) opened for the 1997 season. Every locus (place) was given a number and as each arrowhead was found it was given a basket number. To track and coordinate the visual information between our three disciplines and specifically, to provide protocol for Lev Manovich’s analytic work, this essential metadata was attached to each image of each arrowhead, dorsal and ventral views as follows: WF001_7_10027_byblos_1 (area>locus>basket> arrowhead type>dorsal view) 7 Lev Manovich’s specific part in the project was to develop visualization techniques for working with our initial image set of 500 pieces. His techniques brought a unique solution to the contentious if not impossible challenge of how to organize and work with massive media data sets that will be easily accessible and directly usable by investigators. Lev shares a bit of background in this quote: A number of interconnected developments which took place between 1990 and 2010 – digitization of analog media collections, decrease in prices and expanding capacities of portable computer-based media devices (laptops, tablets, phones, cameras, etc.), the rise of user-generated content and social media, and globalization which increased the number of agents and institutions producing media around the world – led to exponential increase in quantity of media while simultaneously making it much easier to find, share, teach with, and research.8 He explains that traditional methods of observing objects, noticing patterns then making interpretations are no longer viable. Traditional interfaces for presenting image collections display a small subset of images at a time on a two dimensional grid in a single row or as slide shows (interfaces of the Library of Congress to their digital collections). Each have value, but one can only observe a limited number of items at a time. Patterns and “shapes” may be missed without this whole approach. This new interface allows viewing the contents of an entire collection—all at once. Relying on these earlier experiences with more contemporary media, we asked Lev to apply the technology to the digitized arrowhead images with our designated classifications for sorting. [fig. 21] Starting with a basic Excel Spreadsheet, the digital image processing software was then used to measure a number of visual attributes of each arrowhead photograph, including over a dozen of separate measurements of its shape and contour. The software outputs a spreadsheet containing these measurements 8 which is then joined with the existing metadata. [fig. 22] As Lev further explained, the project utilized ImageJ, a popular digital image processing free application commonly used in the sciences. Software Studies Initiative adopted ImageJ as a basic tool to measure various visual properties of images and video, and created a number of extensions for processing large image sets. In our project, we first automatically mask each arrow against background, and then use ImageJ build-in command to generate over a dozen separate measurements of the shape's outline. [figs. 23-26] (These kinds of measurements were never done by archeologists previously.) [fig. 27] Once the measurement of each arrowhead in every photo is complete, we use ImagePlot software developed by Software Studies to create high resolution visualizations where the arrows are positioned according to various combinations of these measurements, as well as the categories normally used by archeologists to describe these artifacts. ImagePlot runs on regular desktops and computers. We also use another software designed by the lab which allows generation of such visualizations interactively on HIPerSpace, one of the largest visualization systems in the world which combines 70 30-inch monitors to offer 36,000 x 8,000 resolution. The goals are to explore similarities and differences between 500 arrowheads in a more precise way than allowed by language-based categories, and to identify new meaningful dimensions for their comparison based on numerical measurements of their shapes. The HIPerSpace tiled supervisualization system is incorporated to interactively organize the photographs of the arrowheads according to dozens of different combinations of their attributes. While interactively displaying the data for research, as an artist, creative 9 opportunity showing the artifacts’ aesthetic possibilities was inevitable. Inspired by Lev, I could see that various disciplines, including art, could now “observe a physical scene directly with your eyes, [and] you can look anywhere in any order.”9 Our presentation showcases new patterns and insights enabled by these innovative research methodologies. From an artist’s perspective, the initial image study presented here in [fig. 28] is inspired by the arrowheads, maps, diagrams and aerial views of excavations of Wadi Faynan. Historical/cultural significance, beauty and craft of these arrowheads, singularly and in visual composition come together to create and enable new work out of old. 10 References 1 CISA3. “Homepage.” Retrieved November 15, 2011. http://cisa3.calit2.net. 2 Levy, T. E., in prep. The Mountains were of Copper: 10,000 years of Ancient Mining and Metallurgy in Faynan, Jordan. (Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology UCLA, 2011), p. 30. 3 Levy, T. E., and S. A. Rosen. 1987. "The Chipped Stone Industry at Shiqmim: Typological Considerations," in Shiqmim I. Edited by T. E. Levy, pp. 281-294. Oxford: BAR International Series 356; Rosen, S. 1997. Lithics after the Stone Age. London: Altamira; Rollefson, G. O. 2008. "The Neolithic Period," in Jordan - An Archaeological Reader. Edited by R. B. Adams, pp. 71-108. London: Equinox. 4 Gopher, A. Arrowheads of the Neolithic Levant: a Seriation Analysis. (Winona Lake. 1994), p. 36. 5 “Techniques for Flint-knapping.” Videos set. Retrieved November 21, 2011. http://www.ehow.com/videos-on_4514_techniques-flintknapping.html 6 Adams, R. “A Brief Biography.” Retrieved November 23, 2011. http://russellbadams.brinkster.not/biography.htm. 7 Levy, T. E., in prep. The Mountains were of Copper: 10,000 years of Ancient Mining and Metallurgy in Faynan, Jordan. (Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology UCLA, 2011), p. 30. 8 Manovich, L. “Media Visualization: Visual Techniques for Exploring Large Media Collections.” Retrieved November 15, 2011. http://manovich.net/articles. 9 Ibid

Organizational mission and the phenomenon of mission drift/creep: A perspective from the nonprofit sector

Author: Gooding Claude Ivan
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 26/10/2012
Field of study

The purpose of this study is to explain organizational mission and the phenomenon of mission drift/creep in particular and to determine whether it should continue to be discouraged as is widely believed and practiced or encouraged as a process in organizational learning. This research is an explanatory study within a sector that is admittedly very diverse in terms of organizational outputs, functions, and purposes. This study seeks to examine the macro theoretical links that may explain the phenomenon of mission drift or creep across the sector.Dissertation Topic: Organizational Mission and the phenomenon of Mission Drift/Creep : A perspective from the Nonprofit sector Submitted by Claude Ivan Gooding Doctor of Management Program Fall 2012 Faculty Advisors: David G. Anderson, Ph.D. and Eric Dent, Ph.D. Purpose and Scope of the Research • The nonprofit sector has evolved beyond its original charitable purposes and has over the years grown indistinguishable from for-profit enterprises. This study recognizes the contrast between what companies do and what companies say they do as a material fact of corporate life. • The purpose of this study is to explain organizational mission and the phenomenon of mission drift/creep in particular and to determine whether it should continue to be discouraged as is widely believed and practiced or encouraged as a process in organizational learning. • This research is an explanatory study within a sector that is admittedly very diverse in terms of organizational outputs, functions, and purposes. • This study seeks to examine the macro theoretical links that may explain the phenomenon of mission drift or creep across the sector. Research Questions • Question 1: In what ways is mission essential to organizational strategy or in other words, is it even relevant? •Question 2: What is the phenomenon of mission drift and its role in nonprofit organization success and failure? Secondly, the study attempts to explain the phenomenon of mission drift or mission creep, recognizing there are nuanced differences in the meaning of the two constructs. Nevertheless, is this a process of natural selection that is inherently unavoidable or are these conscious determinations of management to move away from stated mission. •Question 3: Under what conditions should mission drift or mission creep be encouraged or discouraged as a process of organizational learning? Significance of this Research for Management • A glaring gap in research has been studies that focus on the de facto mission of organizations and how movement away from their core mission in practice, a phenomenon known as “mission drift” or “mission creep”, occurs. There has been a dearth of explanatory studies that focus on the phenomenon, how it occurs, and whether it can or should be avoided. • Understanding what is “mission drift” or “mission creep” is critical to strategic planners and to both for-profit and nonprofit managers, since it is integral to stakeholder legitimization. Building confidence in the mission of an organization is a major part of the work of a nonprofit since there is no profit motive. What an organization sets out to accomplish is largely captured in its mission statement, hence it stands to reason that perceptions of movement away from the intended mission will give rise to heightened concern or even distrust among stakeholders. •The nonprofit sector is under siege, a crisis of confidence. This crisis stems not from the financial or economic conditions that have impacted the global economy within the last three to five years, even though this may have served to amplify the issue, but a growing lack of trust and support for the continued need and justification for, the tax exemption granted to this sector. •If the doubts continue to persist and cogent arguments are not forthcoming to support the evolution of the sector and the changes that are apparent, then naysayers will continue to erode confidence and question continued support for the sector’s tax exempt status, which can ring the death-knell for thousands of organizations. Main Literature Themes and Authors Cluster theme: Mission and Stated mission Pearce, J.A., & David , F.(1987). Corporate mission statements: The bottom line. Academy of Management Executives, 1(2), 109-106. Desmidt, S., & Prinzie, A. (2008). The impact of mission statements: an empirical analysis from a sensemaking perspective. Academy of Management Proceedings, 1-6. Cluster theme: Contingency and Resource Dependency perspective Meinhard, A.G., & Foster, M. (2002). A contingency view of the responses of voluntary social service organizations in Ontario to government cutbacks. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 19(1), 27-41. Barad, S., Maw, L., & Stone,N. (2005). Volunteermatch.org: balancing mission and earned-revenue potential. Strategy & Leadership, 33(2), 17-24. Chetkovich, C., & Frumkin, P. (1999). Balancing margin and mission: nonprofit competition in charitable versus fee-based programs. Administration & Society, 35(5), 564-596. Froelich, K.,A. (1998). To profit, or not to profit? Nonprofit Management & Leadership, 9(2), 201-204. Cluster theme: Environmental perspective Alexander, V. D. (1998). Environmental constraints and organizational strategies: Complexity, conflict, and coping in the nonprofit sector. Yale University Press. Ruef, M. (1997). Assessing organizational fitness on a dynamic landscape: an empirical test of the relative inertia thesis. Strategic Management Journal, 18(7), 837-853. Frumkin, P. & Clark, A. (2000). When mission, market and politics collide, values and strategies in the nonprofit human services. Nonprofit & Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 29(1), 141-164. Cluster theme: Drift Robinson, J.C., (2004). For-profit non-conversion and regulatory firestorm at carefirst bluecross blueshield. Health Affairs, 23(4), 68-83. Copestake, J. (2007). Mission drift-understand it. Avoid it. ERS Review, 9(2), 20-26. Jonker, K., & Meehan, W. F. (2008). Curbing mission creep. Stanford Social Innovation Review , 6(1). 60-65. Cluster theme: Learning Seanor, P., & Meaton, J. (2008). Learning from failure, ambiguity and trust in social enterprise. Social Enterprise Journal, 4(1). 24-40.Key Propositions Distilled from the Literature • Contingency and Resource Dependency theoretical perspectives partially explaining the phenomenon; • Environmental/Population Ecology and Institutional theoretical perspectives provide an alternative view that partially explain the phenomenon; • Organizational Learning schools of thought support learning from failure and pushes the argument for embracing mission drift/creep in a strategic and proactive manner rather than resist it. Conceptual Framework Conceptual Framework Thesis statement If one accepts the argument that “mission drift/creep” is inevitable due to inter-action with the environment, this author posits that, it could be managed so as to reduce, distrust, or questioning from stakeholders internal and/or external to the organization. Managers can be more proactive in planning for change in mission resulting from a process of organizational learning. It therefore can be planned for, as opposed to be reacted to or resisted. Research Approach & Formation of Argument • A systematic review of literature was conducted. • The intent was to find as much of the relevant studies that exist. The comprehensiveness of the search is critical to a successful systematic review hence this process was ongoing and continued to be updated over the last year. • Search results using the key words “mission statements” generated 9,277 results which were then narrowed based on the PAT criteria. It is in the screening process and the selection criteria that one either included or eliminated work in building the literature review. • The product of the systematic review is an evaluation and thematic synthesis of the work helping to support or refute the thesis of this paper. Systematic Reviews bring into focus the work already commenced and seeks to build on it. Findings 1. There are two emergent perspectives, the first being that drift/creep is a process and secondly, it also represents changes in the content of organizations activities and behavior. 2. The jury is mixed on the relevance and importance of mission statements. However, this study recognizes a common thread emerging that even though there are arguments for and against the value of mission statements, it is undisputable that organizational mission per se is important and relevant to identity formation, resource allocation, boundary setting and stakeholder legitimization. 3. Missions fail when the mission, vision and goals are misaligned. 4. The control whether it be of resources or by rules and regulations, either by external forces or internal to the organization itself seem to be at the core of several explanations of the cause of mission drift/creep. 5. Organizations have accepted mission drift as a material fact of life but they should be proactive (via OL) in seeking to initiate, direct and control it. Implications for Management Practice • An understanding of the nature of the phenomenon of mission drift/creep is critical to successful strategic planning in the nonprofit sector. It serves to provide practitioners with greater certainty in planning for mission driven activity and diminishes the issue of trust from the stakeholders’ perspective. Future Research Agendas • Trust is an important theme in management practice and there is tremendous value in looking empirically at mission-in-use vis-à-vis stated mission and in seeking greater insight into whether organizations stay true to their words. • How organizations manage change in mission is important to practitioners and academics alike. Research in benchmarking practices would be important in nonprofit management

Influence of national culture on entrepreneurship

Author: Jeong Tae H.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 26/10/2012
Field of study

This dissertation uses two measurements of national entrepreneurial activity. Besides analysis of entrepreneurial activity rate (quantitative; # entrepreneurs), the synthesis of entrepreneurial motivation (qualitative; the ascendency of improvement‐driven opportunity motive over necessity motive) can illustrate the authentic influence of national culture among entrepreneurs.Influence of National Culture on Entrepreneurship This dissertation uses two measurements of national entrepreneurial activity. Besides analysis of entrepreneurial activity rate (quantitative; # entrepreneurs), the synthesis of entrepreneurial motivation (qualitative; the ascendency of improvement‐driven opportunity motive over necessity motive) can illustrate the authentic influence of national culture among entrepreneurs. o How do national cultures relate to entrepreneurial activity? o How do national cultures relate to ascendency of improvement‐driven opportunity motive over necessity motive? The influence of national culture on entrepreneurial activity has attracted the interest of many scholars in diverse fields including economics (e.g., Schumpeter, 1934), sociology (e.g., Weber, 1930), and psychology (e.g., McClelland, 1961). Schumpeter (1934) asserted that technological innovation could be encouraged by entrepreneurial activities and Berger (1991) addressed how entrepreneurial activities would boost a country’s economic growth. For practical value, this study would provide great insight for entrepreneurs who want to explore overseas opportunities and policy makers who create the regulations and systems for globalization. In general, researchers have hypothesized that entrepreneurship is facilitated by cultures that are high in individualism, low in uncertainty avoidance, low in power‐distance, and high in masculinity (Hofstede, 2001). Sample: GEM (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor) (Kelly, Singer, & Herrington, 2012) data over 140,000 people in 54 countries on entrepreneurial engagement and attitude. For statistical treatment, 26 countries in both factor‐driven and efficiency‐driven economies are designated as developing (poor) countries. The remaining 22 countries in innovation‐driven economies are coded as developed (rich) countries. [TEA (or IN) = aPDI+bIDV+cMAS+dUAI+e] using the SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) software (PASW Statistics 18.0), multivariate regression was utilized in order to test the eight research hypotheses. Hypotheses 5 to 8 – Cultural Influence on Motivation IN Ratio Improvement−driven entrepreneurial activity Necessity−driven entrepreneurial activity o Why are the TEAs of developed countries known for their high entrepreneurial spirits (USA: 12.3%, South Korea: 7.8%) lower than those of developing countries (Chile: 23.7%, Thailand: 19.5%)? o Is there any concern that TEA may distort the nature of entrepreneurship? o Are the entrepreneurial motives of developing countries different from those of developing countries? Tae H. Jeong Doctor of Management Advisors: Professor Eric Dent / Professor G. David Andersen Hypotheses 1 to 4 ‐ Cultural Influence on Total Entrepreneurial Activity (TEA) Contrary to the traditional belief, individualism and TEA were found to be negatively related. On the motives of entrepreneurs, entrepreneurs in developed countries would start businesses with “improvement‐driven opportunity” motives. On the contrary, the necessity motives seem to influence more strongly in developing countries because there are no other work options. The result suggests that in each individual country, the ascendency of improvement‐driven opportunity motive over Today’s global world agonizes over economic depression, notorious unemployment and financial deficit. To overcome these obstacles, it is critical for policy makers to boost entrepreneurship in each country. Understanding the mechanism of the influence of national culture on entrepreneurship is the first step. To encourage total entrepreneurial activity in developing countries, policy makers must consider enhancing their collectivistic culture. In order to stimulate improvement, individualism would be the key factor in start‐up firms (high‐tech). It will be significant to track down the entrepreneurship data for the past 10 years to find trends. When comparing GEM data from 2010 to 2011, there are some small differences on the influence of national culture. If there are any patterns s on the influence of national culture, researchers can forecast the movement and make relevant policies to boost entrepreneurship. For the influence on entrepreneurship, further research needs for surrogate of Hofstede’s national culture (e.g. GLOBE, industry culture, organizational culture, institutional theory, religion and spirituality). TEA IN TEA IN TEA IN PDI ‐.037 .007 .001 ‐.003 ‐.137 * .023 IDV ‐.149 ** .048 * .018 .054 ‐.231 ** ‐.005 MAS .039 ‐.069 *** .017 ‐.098 ** .044 ‐.014 UAI ‐.009 ‐.032 * ‐.005 ‐.011 .020 ‐.024 * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001 Total: 48 Countries Developed: 22 Countries Developing: 26 Countries necessity motive is associated by high levels in individualism, low levels of masculinity, and low levels of uncertainty avoidance. No Author (Year) Measurable Focus Data Source Statistics No. Reference* 1 Geletkanycz (1997) National culture on top executive commitment to the status quo CORP 1,540 executives; 20 countries Survey (Hofstede's cultural indices) 92 2 Kogut & Singh (1988) National culture on the choice of entry mode CORP 506 entry decisions; 13 countries Secondary data (Hofstede's cultural indices) 1049 3 Kreiser, Marino, Dickson, & Weaver (2010) National Culture on EO and GDP COUN 1,048 firms; 6 countries Survey (Hofstede's cultural indices) 3 4 McGrath, MacMillan, & Scheinberg (1992) National culture on entrepreneurs and non‐entrepreneurs INDI 1,217 entrepreneurs, 1,206 nonentrepreneurs; 9 countries Survey (culture measured in survey) 91 5 Mitchell, Smith, Seawright, & Morse (2000) National culture on entrepreneurial cognitive scripts and the venture creation decisions INDI 753 entrepreneurs and nonentrepreneurs; 7 countries Survey (culture inferred from nationality) 130 6 Naor, Linderman, & Schroeder (2010) National or Organizational culture on manufacturing performance CORP 189 firms; 6 countries Survey & Secondary data on GLOBE 6 7 Shane (1993) National cultural on rates of innovation COUN 33 countries Secondary data on trademark 121 8 Steensma, Marino, Weaver, & Dickson (2000) National culture on the formation of technology alliances CORP 1,846 SMEs; 7 countries Survey (Hofstede's cultural indices) 91 9 Tan (2002) National culture on entrepreneurial strategic orientations COUN 60 Chinese firms/81 Chinese‐American /120 Caucasian‐American Survey (cultural values measured by survey) N.A. 10 Thomas & Mueller (2000) National culture on EO ( risk‐taking, locus of control and innovativeness) INDI 1,790 students: 9 countries Survey (culture inferred from nationality) 91 No. Country PDI IDV MAS UAI Total Early‐Stage Entrepreneurship Activity (TEA) Necessity‐ Driven (% of TEA) Improvement‐ Driven (% of TEA) IN Ratio 1 Bangladesh 80 20 55 60 12.8 27.3 50 1.83 2 Guatemala 95 6 37 101 19.3 33.5 33.5 1.00 3 Iran 58 41 43 59 14.5 53 31.5 0.59 4 Jamaica 45 39 68 13 13.7 33 39.8 1.21 5 Pakistan 55 14 50 70 9.1 46.9 24.7 0.53 6 Venezuela 81 12 73 76 15.4 28.5 43.4 1.52 7 Argentina 49 46 56 86 20.8 33.1 44.7 1.35 8 Brazil 69 38 4 76 14.9 30.7 45.2 1.47 9 Chile 63 23 28 86 23.7 27.4 54.3 1.98 10 China 80 20 66 30 24 40.6 29 0.71 11 Colombia 67 13 64 80 21.4 25.1 30.1 1.20 12 Croatia 73 33 40 80 7.3 35.3 30.7 0.87 13 Hungary 46 80 88 82 7.3 31 29.2 0.94 14 Malaysia 104 26 50 36 4.9 10.2 71.8 7.04 15 Mexico 81 30 69 82 9.6 19.4 54.5 2.81 16 Panama 95 11 44 86 20.8 26.9 40.5 1.51 17 Peru 64 16 42 87 22.9 22.4 52 2.32 18 Poland 68 60 64 93 9 47.6 31.5 0.66 19 Romania 90 30 42 90 9.9 41.3 34.4 0.83 20 Russia 93 39 36 95 4.6 26.9 41.9 1.56 21 Slovakia 104 52 110 51 14.2 27.6 33.9 1.23 22 South Africa 49 65 63 49 9.1 34.8 39.3 1.13 23 Thailand 64 20 34 64 19.5 18.9 66.8 3.53 24 Trininad 47 16 58 55 22.7 14.9 43.9 2.95 25 Turkey 66 37 45 85 11.9 31.6 44.8 1.42 26 Uruguay 61 36 38 100 16.7 11.1 9.8 0.88 27 Australia 36 90 61 51 10.5 15 73.1 4.87 28 Belgium 65 75 54 94 5.7 10.4 72.4 6.96 29 Czech 35 58 45 74 7.6 27.3 56.5 2.07 30 Denmark 18 74 16 23 4.6 7.1 64 9.01 31 Finland 33 63 26 59 6.3 18.3 59.4 3.25 32 France 68 71 43 86 5.7 14.8 70.7 4.78 33 Germany 35 67 66 65 5.6 18.6 54.9 2.95 34 Greece 60 35 57 112 8 25.4 36.8 1.45 35 Ireland 28 70 68 35 7.2 29.5 36.9 1.25 36 Japan 54 46 95 92 5.2 24.9 63.5 2.55 37 Republic of Korea 60 18 39 85 7.8 41.5 36.2 0.87 38 Netherlands 38 80 14 53 8.2 9.1 62.3 6.85 39 Norway 31 69 8 50 6.9 4.3 70.5 16.40 40 Portugal 63 27 31 104 7.5 17.8 58.1 3.26 41 Singapore 74 20 48 8 6.6 16.2 52.6 3.25 42 Slovenia 71 27 19 88 3.7 12.1 51.2 4.23 43 Spain 57 51 42 86 5.8 25.9 39.3 1.52 44 Sweden 31 71 5 29 5.8 6.1 67.6 11.08 45 Switzerland 34 68 70 58 6.6 11.4 61.4 5.39 46 Taiwan 58 17 45 69 7.9 17.5 49.8 2.85 47 United Kingdom 35 89 66 35 7.3 17.2 46.3 2.69 48 United States 40 91 62 46 12.3 21.2 58.9 2.78 Independent variable Dependent variable Factor‐Driven Economies Efficiency‐ Driven Economies Innovation‐ Driven Economie

System dynamics perspective of Finger Lakes winery capacity utilization and implications of the Wine Industry and Liquor Store Revitalization Act for wine distribution

Author: Hamilton Warren D.
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 16/08/2012
Field of study

As a consequence of the Wine Industry and Liquor Store Revitalization Act, proposed changes to New York State’s wine distribution system will potentially increase the distribution of wine by allowing grocery stores to sell wine for the first time. The primary focus of this study is to explore the process of production efficiency in wineries by comparing the current distribution model with the new model that follows from systems changes as a result of this proposed legislation. The research examined Finger Lakes winery capacity to meet demand increases by applying an iterative five-step system dynamics modeling approach through a simulation exercise. The rationale for using such an approach is that it illustrates the predicted consequences of different percentage increases in demand on a winery’s current production capacity. Outcomes from simulation are twofold: first, simulation provides and validates a workable model that will provide further application for industry research and winery use; and second, it determines that Finger Lakes wineries can meet the selected demand increases of between 10 and 50 percent with existing current capacity. The paper concludes with a recommendation for future research, considered in detail using Forrester’s (1968) market growth model as adapted by Morecroft (1983).A System Dynamics Perspective 1 Abstract Title of Dissertation: A System Dynamics Perspective of Finger Lakes Winery Capacity Utilization and Implications of the Wine Industry and Liquor Store Revitalization Act for Wine Distribution Warren D. Hamilton, Doctor of Management, 2011 Dissertation Directed By: Dr. Leslie Dinauer Professor and Program Director Graduate School of Management & Technology University of Maryland University College As a consequence of the Wine Industry and Liquor Store Revitalization Act, proposed changes to New York State’s wine distribution system will potentially increase the distribution of wine by allowing grocery stores to sell wine for the first time. The primary focus of this study is to explore the process of production efficiency in wineries by comparing the current distribution model with the new model that follows from systems changes as a result of this proposed legislation. The research examined Finger Lakes winery capacity to meet demand increases by applying an iterative five-step system dynamics modeling approach through a simulation exercise. The rationale for using such an approach is that it illustrates the predicted consequences of different percentage increases in demand on a winery’s current production capacity. Outcomes from simulation are twofold: first, simulation provides and validates a workable model that will provide further application for industry research and winery use; and second, it determines that Finger Lakes wineries can meet the selected demand increases of between 10 and 50 percent with existing current capacity. The paper concludes with a recommendation for future research, considered in detail using Forrester’s (1968) market growth model as adapted by Morecroft (1983). A System Dynamics Perspective 2 A System Dynamics Perspective of Finger Lakes Winery Capacity Utilization and Implications of the Wine Industry and Liquor Store Revitalization Act for Wine Distribution By Warren D. Hamilton Dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of University of Maryland University College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Management 2011 Advisory Committee: Dr. Leslie Dinauer, Chair Dr. James P. Gelatt Dr. Robert P. Ouellette A System Dynamics Perspective 3 Table of Contents List of Tables 6 List of Figures 7 Chapter One Introduction 9 Research Problem and Research Objectives 13 Research Questions 14 Chapter Two Literature Review 17 Conceptual Framework 30 Chapter Three Analysis and Synthesis 34 Step 1. Problem Articulation 35 Step 2. A Dynamic Hypothesis Sketch of Interactions through Feedback Loops 36 The Current Industry Model 38 Capacity, Backlog, Delay, and Shipment 41 Capacity vs. Production: The Numbers 44 The Rationale for a New Model 47 Step 3. Formulation of the Dynamic Hypothesis through Algebraic Equations 50 Step 4. Testing the Model through Simulation 57 Model Behavior and Equilibrium 60 A System Dynamics Perspective 4 Chapter Four Research Method 62 The Rationale for Applying a Step Approach 63 Data Collection Process 63 Final Data Collection 64 Threats to Quantitative Validity 67 Ethical Issues 69 Chapter Five Results : Step 5. Evaluation 70 Chapter Six Conclusion 81 Limitations of the Research 83 Recommendations for Future Research 85 Appendices Appendix A – Forrester’s (1968) Market Growth Model 90 Appendix B – Steps of the Modeling Process (Sterman, 2000) 96 Appendix C – List of Finger Lakes Wineries and Region Map 99 Appendix D – Winery Questionnaire 102 Appendix E – IRB Form 104 Appendix F – Informed Consent Form 109 Appendix G – Data Results from Simulation 111 Appendix H – Table of Winery Questionnaire Responses 115 Appendix I – Graphical Comparison of Simulation Results 116 A System Dynamics Perspective 5 Appendix J – Model Diagrams with Simulation Results 129 Glossary 171 References 174 A System Dynamics Perspective 6 List of Tables Table 1. Percent of Case Sales in Finger Lakes Region by Wine Trail 37 Table 2. Percent of Case Sales by Distribution Channel 37 Table 3. Wine Production Capacity (in gallons) 45 Table 4. Finger Lakes Wine Production vs. Capacity (in gallons) 46 Table 5. Finger Lakes Production vs. Capacity (in cases) 47 Table 6. Simulation Results for a 10% Increase in Demand 71 Table 7. Data Results from Simulation Appendix G 111 Table 8. Table of Winery Interview Responses Appendix H 115 A System Dynamics Perspective 7 List of Figures Figure 1. Modeling As an Iterative Process 34 Figure 2. The Current Wine Distribution System in the State of New York 39 Figure 2a. Current Distribution Causal Tree 40 Figure 3. Capacitive Delay 43 Figure 4. The Proposed Wine Distribution System in New York State: A New Model 48 Figure 4a. A Proposed Distribution Causal Tree 49 Figure 5. Wine Inventory Accumulation 50 Figure 6. Estimating Wine Shipments 54 Figure 7. Wine Inventory Correction 55 Figure 8. The Determinants of Wine Production 57 Figure 9. The Basic Wine Inventory Model (for Simulation) 59 Graphic Illustrations of Model Behavior with 10% Increase in Demand Figure 10a Winery A 74 Figure 10b. Winery B 75 Figure 10c. Winery C 76 Figure 10d. Winery D 77 Figure 10e. Winery E 78 Figure 10f. Benchmark 79 Figure 11. Feedback Loops for S-Shaped Growth 86 Figure 12. Wine S-Curve Growth Pattern Vis-à-vis Saturation Levels 88 Appendix A – Forrester’s Market Growth Model (1968) Figure A-1. Sectors of the Market Growth Model 91 A System Dynamics Perspective 8 Figure A-2. Order Fulfillment 92 Figure A-3. Capacity Acquisition 93 Figure A-4. Structure of the Sales Organization 94 Figure A-5. Structure of the Market Subsystem 95 Appendix I – Graphic Comparison of Percentage Demand Increases through Simulations Figure I-a. Winery A 117 Figure I-b. Winery B 119 Figure I-c. Winery C 121 Figure I-d. Winery D 123 Figure I-e. Winery E 125 Figure I-f. Industry Benchmark 127 Appendix J – Simulations 129–170 A System Dynamics Perspective 9 CHAPTER ONE Introduction The Wine Industry and Liquor Store Revitalization Act (the Act), as first introduced in New York early in 2009, was designed to amend alcoholic beverage control laws and to repeal certain provisions of Prohibition-era rules created and firmly in place since the 1930s. Proponents of the Act argue that the Finger Lakes Wine Industry (the Industry) is handicapped by outdated restrictions that they believe prevent needed growth of the Industry and limit opportunities for vendors to expand their businesses (New York State Assembly Summary A08632, 2009). After months of debate and industry-wide attention, the legislation, as proposed, continues to meet with factious resistance from wineries, retailers, distributors, and industry and consumer groups. Interestingly, justification for the proposal is based on comprehensive legislation that provides stimulus to those very wineries, retailers, distributors, and industry and consumer groups that oppose the legislation. One continuing question yet to be answered is why the very entities that might benefit the most from the proposed legislation have resisted and pressured officials against bringing the Act to fruition. Although theories abound, there remains scant vindication on either side for the conundrum. This project applies a systems approach to provide greater understanding of wine distribution, considers change, and creates a vehicle by which wineries can determine if they indeed have the capacity to meet the demands of potentially changing operations, and, in fact determine if the legislation affords added value to their strategic initiatives. The relevance of this research is in using a systems model as a vehicle that provides a meaningful approach to foster a better understanding of a potentially changing business environment. The Industry is a major contributor to New York’s economy and accordingly A System Dynamics Perspective 10 provides opportunity for agriculture, economic development, and tourism (New York State Assembly Summary A08632, 2009). To put this in perspective, over the past 30 years, the New York wine industry has expanded to more than 212 wineries. (There are now more than 60 wineries in the Finger Lakes region alone.) New York is America’s number three wine producer in volume; it contributes over $6 billion in gross sales to the New York economy; employs more than 36,000 people; and has increased tourism in rural areas, which has concurrently added to the growth of other services (Cornell University College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, 2006). Resistance to this progressive legislation has resulted in a deep division throughout the Industry at a time when it is struggling to regain its position as a major U.S. producer of wine (personal communications with area winery principals between June 10 and June 25, 2009, will remain anonymous for this presentation to maintain confidentiality). Various arguments from many perspectives illustrate the complex nature of expectations from all factions. For example, according to a leading area winery principal, larger wineries stand to gain distribution in grocery stores, which might be more cost effective as shipments of wine from wineries would be routed to a single-store distribution center rather than delivered to multiple locations, as is the case with the current model (personal communication, June 23, 2009). Conversely, many small wineries have taken the position that they would be at a greater disadvantage because their lower case production volume would not be attractive to large grocery chain store buyers; and, as a result, they might not be given shelf space (personal communication, June 10, 2009). Even smaller wineries that currently only sell from their own winery retail shops fear that they might never have the chance at grocery store shelf space unless they can significantly increase production. Small retail wine and liquor stores have also formed an alliance against the Act. Fearing that they would lose wine and liquor sales to the large grocery stores, these retailers put pressure A System Dynamics Perspective 11 on liquor manufacturers and distributors by threatening to boycott certain brands. In turn, according to another leading winery principal, distributors have even pressured wineries to oppose the proposed legislation, using a similar threat tactic (personal communication, June 25, 2009). The resulting division within the Industry is a consequence of this issue and is most unfortunate as many entities cannot remain neutral. By taking a position, for example, a winery is at risk of some future negative reprisal (personal communication, June 25, 2009). Interestingly, the proposed legislation points to a very real business management challenge that many Finger Lakes wineries are facing regarding radical changes to their operational functionality and production processes in meeting increased demand from potentially expanded distribution: namely, operations managerial challenges to wine production that involve functional issues with order fulfillment, capacity acquisition, and sales. Although some wineries have supported the legislation and might easily transition their operations accordingly, other wineries will need a greater systems perspective regarding how to handle increased capacity requirements and resulting changes necessary to winery operations in these functional areas. The problem for these wineries is how they can achieve and maintain production efficiency with radical systems changes. Basically, it is not simply a matter of ramping up production to meet needed increases in output; or is it? It might be that simple for a winery not currently operating at capacity, but not every winery maintains such a position. Further, even if a winery is not currently operating at capacity, can capacity utilization be increased to meet new demand? A systems approach can be used to expose and illustrate how variables associated with the functional areas of order fulfillment, capacity acquisition, and sales impact winery operations in both the current model and the distribution model proposed by the Act. So, ramping up production efficiently in terms A System Dynamics Perspective 12 of capacity utilization may suggest various limitations to operations depending on a winery’s current capacity. However, to understand any model in a dynamic setting we must first articulate a systems problem (Sterman, 2000). For purposes of this discussion this “division” has become problematic for wineries as the apparent dilemma facing winery owners and managers tends to disrupt planned output. By way of comparison, furnishing a new model that addresses the problem of wine production to meet increased distribution and how that affects winery operations provides a dimension of functionality for each winery principal to consider in the decision-making process. The very usefulness of a model is to create value through a comparison that can then be applied to all mental models that have been formed (Forrester, 1968). Opinions and assumptions formulated regarding support or resistance to the Act, if unfounded, only serve to illustrate the varying degree of rationality in the decision-making process relative to mixed information or the lack of information that is available to decision makers regarding the Act and how the industry might change (Sterman, 2000). The basis for resistance to this legislation seemingly parallels the idea that resistance to change is formulated because of blind spots and attitudes that result from a preoccupation with new ideas, forcing new standards and new ways of thinking (Lawrence, 1954). Models can provide greater understanding of the functional relationships relative to winery operations as a result of this change proposition. A clear endogenous explanation of the distribution dynamics proposed by the Act, relative to what each winery considers its normal operations to be, should provide for a rational understanding of the proposed change. Comparison of the current model with the new proposed model as presented here as a result of this study certainly provides for a greater systems understanding. As such, modeling is used to illustrate the changes to winery operations as A System Dynamics Perspective 13 proposed in the Act and how selected changes affect order fulfillment, capacity acquisition, and sales. However, this is not simply a linear process, but rather a continually iterative process that involves following a disciplined approach of including certain universal steps in the modeling procedure (Sterman, 2000, p. 86), as is discussed in the literature review section of the paper and further illustrated by the research method applied in this investigation. Moreover, any understanding requires constant articulation of the problem and the analysis of that problem relative to the system and the proposed changes to that system (Sterman, 2000). The rationale for applying a systems approach to expose the dynamics associated with enhancing the distribution system is clearly in providing a vehicle for an improved industry-wide understanding of how proposed changes will impact winery operations and output. This must begin with each winery’s focus on gaining a comprehensive understanding of the system dynamics at work relative to the proposed legislation. Research Problem and Research Objectives The primary focus of this investigation is to explore the process of production efficiency in Finger Lakes winery operations by comparing the current business model with a revised model that results from systems changes proposed in the Wine Industry and Liquor Store Revitalization Act. Accordingly, this research constructed the current system model and a new proposed model that takes into account changes presented in the Act. Then a sector analysis of distinct organizational subunits—identified as capacity acquisition, order fulfillment, and sales— was conducted by employing Forrester’s (1968) market growth model to determine how winery operations might be changed to improve performance as a result of the Act’s passage. A System Dynamics Perspective 14 Intended results from this research project should provide readers and winery principals with a comparative and comprehensive understanding of the pre- and post-Act systems models. Accordingly, there is an underlying twofold purpose of this research. First, if the legislation is eventually passed, this study will have produced a valuable systems schematic to illustrate how wineries will need to adapt current operations to comply with proposed changes as a result of the Act. The new systems model will help identify needed changes to certain variables inherent in the functional areas of order fulfillment, capacity acquisition, and sales of winery operations. These functional areas are also defined as the operations within organizational subunits of the winery and are analyzed in relation to the customer demand function from the market, also defined as a subunit in the Forrester (1968) market growth model (as illustrated in Appendix A). Second, regardless of whether the legislation is ever brought to fruition, readers and principals will have access to a schematic of the current model to compare with their current operating structure and help them determine if necessary adjustments to operations processes are needed to attain greater efficiency. For example, decision makers can adapt enhanced operations that grow production steadily and for an extended period of time and not fail by applying a more structured and comprehensive approach in line with their individual strategic planning initiatives (Forrester, 1968). Research Questions All systems have three components: (1) structure, which consists of parts; (2) behavior, conceptualized by inputs to a process, the process itself, and the outputs that result; and (3) the interrelatedness of these parts within the system (Forrester 1961, 1968). This research project chose to adopt Forrester’s (1968) definition of a system as “a grouping of parts that operate A System Dynamics Perspective 15 together for a common purpose” (Forrester, 1968, p. 1-1). More importantly, these parts are discrete and possess identifiable characteristics, behavior, and attributes. They do not act in isolation but interact with each other in a process that ultimately produces an output. Moreover, the outputs that result become future inputs to a continuation of the process, which suggests the occurrence of constant change within a system that must also be considered. The difficulty in understanding a system, however, is usually a result of misidentifying these variables, or simply overlooking certain variables in terms of their interaction to reach a collective purpose. Systems analysis is a problem-solving technique that decomposes a system and exposes the interrelatedness of its component pieces to produce a better understanding of the system’s structure (Whitten & Bentley, 2007, p. 160). Early in the development of system dynamics theory, Forrester (1968) described a model as a substitute for a system (Forrester, 1968, p. 3-1) and suggested that the process of modeling can be used to illustrate the structure and interrelatedness of a system’s parts. Modeling is thus a fundamental component of systems dynamics and can be used to identify the variables within a system’s structure to gain an interpretation of their interrelatedness and effectiveness. Further, it is essential to understand how all variables in a system are operationalized because a system’s parts do not exist in a static environment. A systems analysis approach provides a useful theoretical framework from which to measure and understand how effectively variables such as inventory, expected demand, production, and resources are used and thus how efficient the system is. Thus, a systems analysis approach allows for a more comprehensive understanding of how change affects all three components within the system and can be applied relative to Finger Lakes winery operations. A System Dynamics Perspective 16 Research Questions Two central questions guide this research: Q1: How does systems theory provide a comprehensive understanding of operations efficiency for Finger Lakes winery managers? Q2: Using a systems approach, what are the predicted consequences to capacity for Finger Lakes winery operations that result from the Wine Industry and Liquor Store Revitalization Act? Here, the first research question highlights systems pe

Follower voice: Influence on leader behavior

Author: Morasso Alfred
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 12/10/2012
Field of study

Leadership and management theories, even more progressive ones such as transformational leadership and leader-member exchange, acknowledge the role of leaders in influencing followers to take actions they normally would not take alone. These theories are largely leader-centric and view the relationship from a hierarchical and unidirectional perspective. This dissertation examines the relationship between followers and leaders from a follower-centric point of view. The purpose is to determine the levels in which and to which followers influence leaders' behavior and decision-making processes. One of the ways followers attempt to influence leaders is through the exertion of voice. In this study, voice exertion levels and the presence of experience, knowledge, and achievement factors are analyzed using a mixed methods research approach and analyzing 27 studies conducted over a 40-year period by notable academic and scientific researchers. The relationship between follower voice exertion levels are linked to the presence or absence of the attainment of experience, knowledge, and achievement that each actor acquires over time. The objective is to determine whether followers exert more voice and influence over leaders as experience, knowledge, and achievement grow over time. The results of this study reveal that followers exert more influence over leaders than is acknowledged in both traditional and progressive leadership theories, including transformational and leader-member exchange theories. Followers do so through the exertion of voice, which can take various forms and occur at various levels. Follower voice exertion and therefore follower influence on leader behavior and decision-making is higher when the actors acquire experience and knowledge together.ABSTRACT Title of Dissertation FOLLOWER VOICE: INFLUENCE ON LEADER BEHAVIOR Al Morasso, Doctor of Management, 2011 Dissertation Directed By Dr. Thomas J. Mierzwa, Graduate School, University of Maryland University College Leadership and management theories, even more progressive ones such as transformational leadership and leader-member exchange, acknowledge the role of leaders in influencing followers to take actions they normally would not take alone. These theories are largely leader-centric and view the relationship from a hierarchical and unidirectional perspective. This dissertation examines the relationship between followers and leaders from a follower-centric point of view. The purpose is to determine the levels in which and to which followers influence leaders’ behavior and decision-making processes. One of the ways followers attempt to influence leaders is through the exertion of voice. In this study, voice exertion levels and the presence of experience, knowledge, and achievement factors are analyzed using a mixed methods research approach and analyzing 27 studies conducted over a 40-year period by notable academic and scientific researchers. The relationship between follower voice exertion levels are linked to the presence or absence of the attainment of experience, knowledge, and achievement that each actor acquires over time. The objective is to determine whether followers exert more voice and influence over leaders as experience, knowledge, and achievement grow over time. The results of this study reveal that followers exert more influence over leaders than is acknowledged in both traditional and progressive leadership theories, including transformational and leader-member exchange theories. Followers do so through the exertion of voice, which can take various forms and occur at various levels. Follower voice exertion and therefore follower influence on leader behavior and decision-making is higher when the actors acquire experience and knowledge together. Key words: followers, followership, influence, leaders, leadership, power, voice FOLLOWER VOICE: INFLUENCE ON LEADER BEHAVIOR By Alfred Morasso Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Management 2011 Advisory Committee Dr. Thomas Mierzwa, Chair Dr. Yung-Chi Sung Dr. Michael A. Evanchik © Copyright by Al Morasso 2011 FOLLOWER VOICE ii DEDICATION To Kristine, who never wavered in her support of me in this endeavor and never lost faith that I could complete the work. FOLLOWER VOICE iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation would not have been completed without the help and support of family, friends, co-workers, cohort members, and members of University of Maryland University College and New School University faculty. To my wife, Kristine—thank you for the years of sacrifice. The faith you had in me gave me the confidence I needed. To my daughters, Elizabeth and Sarah——your support has also been of great value to me. I have had the privilege of working with several people at Educational Testing Service who volunteered to critique my writing several times along the way. Special thanks must be given to Richard Roberts, Ph.D.; Catherine McClellan, Ph.D.; T. J. Elliott; and Marla Barr, Ph.D. for their feedback and guidance. Your help has been invaluable. The journey to completion is one I shared with several members of my University of Maryland University College cohort. Thanks to all of them, especially Martha Reider. We have grown together and it has been a pleasure participating with and learning from all of them. There are also a number of university faculty members who taught and advised me since I started the Doctor of Management program in 2007. I thank University of Maryland University College faculty members Dr. Thomas Mierzwa; Yung-Chi Sung, Ph.D.; and Michael Evanchik, Ph.D. for their countless hours of advising. It was Claudine SchWeber, Ph.D. who fostered my interest in looking at leadership from a different perspective. Finally, I also acknowledge Edward Powers, Ed.D., a graduate faculty member at The New School, for inspiring me to continue my education and feeding my passion for learning more about human resources management, leadership, and organizational behavior. FOLLOWER VOICE iv TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT PROBLEM ......................................... 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1 Management Problem ................................................................................................................. 1 Research Question ...................................................................................................................... 3 Scope .......................................................................................................................................... 4 Definition of Terms..................................................................................................................... 4 Significance of Study ...................................................................................................................... 5 Organization of Dissertation Chapters .......................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................... 13 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 13 Leaders Need Followers ............................................................................................................... 13 Leaders Fill Follower Needs ......................................................................................................... 18 Leaders and Followers Have Specific Roles, Characteristics, and Traits..................................... 23 Positive Leader Characteristics and Traits ................................................................................ 24 Negative Leader Characteristics and Traits .............................................................................. 26 Leadership Trait—Charisma ..................................................................................................... 26 Follower Characteristics and Traits .......................................................................................... 31 Power Shifting After Needs Are Fulfilled ................................................................................ 32 Power and Influence Shift Between Leaders and Followers .................................................... 34 Follower Voice.......................................................................................................................... 34 Complexity Exists in the Relationship Between Leaders and Followers ..................................... 36 Increases in Follower Influence ................................................................................................ 42 FOLLOWER VOICE v The Dyadic Relationship Between Leader and Follower ......................................................... 45 Transformational Leadership .................................................................................................... 46 CHAPTER 3 CONCEPTUAL MODEL ....................................................................................... 50 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 50 Characteristics and Traits .............................................................................................................. 50 Followers and Followership .......................................................................................................... 51 Leaders and Leadership ................................................................................................................ 53 Relationship Between Leaders and Followers .............................................................................. 55 Conceptual Model—Shift From Leader-Centric to Follower-Centric Power Orientation ........... 58 Thesis Statement ........................................................................................................................... 66 CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................... 67 Research Approach ....................................................................................................................... 67 Research Design........................................................................................................................... 68 Study Set-Up ................................................................................................................................ 71 The Research Studies .................................................................................................................... 72 Systematic Review Construct ................................................................................................... 75 Evaluation Framework .............................................................................................................. 78 Research Study Analysis............................................................................................................... 80 Collecting Data ......................................................................................................................... 80 Analyzing Data ......................................................................................................................... 81 Concept Integration ....................................................................................................................... 81 Shape Findings .......................................................................................................................... 81 Threats to Validity .................................................................................................................... 81 FOLLOWER VOICE vi Researcher Bias Validity Threat ............................................................................................... 82 Construct Validity Threats ........................................................................................................ 83 Internal Validity Threats ........................................................................................................... 83 CHAPTER 5 DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS, AND DISCUSSION ......................................... 84 Research Study Data Analysis and Results .................................................................................. 84 Analysis of Research Studies .................................................................................................... 84 Analysis of Voice Levels—Findings ........................................................................................ 89 Factor Combination Frequency................................................................................................. 91 Operational Definitions ............................................................................................................. 94 Experience and Knowledge Factor Re-Evaluation ................................................................... 96 Relation of Experience and Knowledge Factors to Voice Exertion Levels ................................ 100 Results and Relationship to Transformational Leadership and Leader-Member Exchange Theories.................................................................................................................................. 104 Study Weakness ...................................................................................................................... 106 Summary of Analysis .............................................................................................................. 106 Experience, Knowledge, and Achievement Factors ................................................................... 107 CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK .......................................................... 109 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................ 109 Implications for Theory .............................................................................................................. 111 Implications for Leader-Member Exchange Theory ............................................................... 111 Implications for Transformational Leadership Theory ........................................................... 113 Implications for Practice of Management ................................................................................... 114 Recommendations for Future Research ...................................................................................... 116 FOLLOWER VOICE vii REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 1199 APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................... 1311 FOLLOWER VOICE viii LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Follower and Leader Characteristics and Traits—The Dyadic DNA .......................... 55 Table 3.2 Relative Voice and Influence Exertion Levels ............................................................ 65 Table 4.1 Research Methodology, Approach, and Design Process ............................................. 70 Table 4.2 Keyword Search Table................................................................................................. 74 Table 4.3 Systematic Review Construct Elements ...................................................................... 75 Table 4.4 Evaluation Framework ................................................................................................. 79 Table 5.1 Follower and Voice Exertion Levels and Frequencies ................................................ 87 Table 5.2 Factor Combination Frequency ................................................................................... 92 Table 5.3 Factor Frequencies of Individual Studies in the Literature.......................................... 94 Table 5.4 Factor Combination Frequency—Re-evaluation ......................................................... 98 Table 5.5 Factor Combination Frequency—Comparison of Original (I) and Re-Evaluated (II) Assignments .................................................................................... 99 Table 5.6 Factors and Voice Level Frequencies for Follower and Leader ................................ 101 FOLLOWER VOICE ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1. Condition A—No voice adjustment and high variance in strength of voice between leader and follower. ...................................................................................................................... 60 Figure 3.2. Condition B - Moderate voice adjustment and reduce variance in strength of voice between leader and follower. ........................................................................................................ 61 Figure 3.3. Condition C—Leader and follower alignment of voice strength. ............................. 62 Figure 3.4. Conceptual model Voice and influence level continuum. ......................................... 63 Figure 5.1. Follower and leader voice levels. .............................................................................. 90 Figure 5.2. Follower and leader voice levels——revised. ........................................................... 91 Figure 5.3. Factor combination distribution. ............................................................................... 93 Figure 5.4. Factor combination distribution change—Original vs. re-evaluated. ..................... 100 Figure 5.5. Experience and knowledge factors and follower voice exertion level. ................... 103 Figure 5.6. Experience and knowledge factors and leader voice exertion level. ....................... 103 FOLLOWER VOICE x FOLLOWER VOICE 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT PROBLEM Introduction The purpose of this dissertation is to examine the leader-follower relationship from the follower perspective, especially how followers influence leader behavior and decision-making. The analysis focuses on determining the extent to which followers influence leaders and how followers affect the decision-making process in organizations. During the research and analyses processes, components of several management and leadership theories are examined to determine whether they accurately reflect the follower experience and perceptions of the relationship with leaders. Of particular interest are influence and power exchanges between leader and follower. In addition, data from 27 research studies in which dyadic relationships exist between leaders and followers are analyzed to determine the extent to which followers influence leaders. The analyses of both theory and research include terms, characteristics, and traits describing leaders and followers and whether these descriptors adequately reflect the dynamics of the relationship between leaders and followers. Management Problem The complexity of the relationship between leaders and followers is affected by sociological, economic, political, psychological, and other factors. These factors are not unlike those that have influenced behavior since humankind emerged. Leader and follower roles emerged as a result of societal evolution. “Humans evolved as group-living animals because there was safety in numbers in a hostile environment that had plenty of predators and a limited food supply” (Winsborough, Kaiser, & Hogan, 2009, p. 9). To better ensure survival of the group, individual members adapted their behaviors so these individuals can work together. FOLLOWER VOICE 2 “Group coordination facilitated by efficient decision-making (where a trusted and competent individual took the initiative and others chose to go along) proved to be the most effective solution” (Winsborough et al., 2009, p. 9). From this collective nature, leaders continued to emerge and evolve. Structured societies were built and continue to be built upon the abilities of one person or group of people to influence behaviors of others—individuals or groups who allow themselves to be influenced to do things they would not normally do on their own. This relationship grew out of necessity. Social coordination is best facilitated by a decision-making process in which one individual initiates a plan and others agree to pursue it (Winsborough et al., 2009). Without a leader to plan and coordinate the activities of the group, attainment of goals and objectives required for the group’s survival could be threatened. Traditionally, these influencers have been referred to as leaders, while those who are led are referred to as followers. Supporting the assertion that the relationship between leader and follower is complex reflects the reality that there are no real clear definitions of leader or follower. For example, the word followers can describe those in corporate settings who are led by managers or executives who possess the authority to delegate work and have the ultimate accountability for results. They come together in a formal way, with a common purpose or objective to achieve a goal very often under the direction of someone in a superior position. “Trade unions, governments, business corporations, political parties, and the like are formal structures in the sense that they represent rationally ordered instruments for the achievement of stated goals” (Selznick

Providing Access and Equality for UMUC's Students with Disabilities - DE Oracle

Author: Seabrook Robyn
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 2012
Field of study

DE Oracle @ UMUC An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty Center for Support of Instruction Providing Access and Equality for UMUC's Students with Disabilities Robyn Seabrook Assistant Vice President, Institutional Resolution and Accessibility Other Published: May-June 2012 Category: » Online-pedagogy » Accessibility Overview of UMUC's Office of Disability Services UMUC's Office of Disability Services (ODS) resides within the newly established Office of Institutional Resolution and Accessibility. This new office is dedicated to proactive conflict management and resolution through training, mediation, policy improvement, and the provision of effective accommodations and services to the university community. Working closely with faculty and students (approximately 250–300 per semester), ODS assists with and manages the proper development and implementation of reasonable accommodations for university staff, faculty, and students in accordance with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), including changes made by the ADA Amendments Act of 2008, and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Section 504). The overall purpose of the ADA is to provide equal access and a level playing field for people with disabilities. The ADA often means that people with disabilities may need reasonable accommodations (such as extra time on assignments) to achieve equal access. Section 504 prohibits discrimination based on disability in programs or activities receiving federal financial assistance. Title II of the ADA prohibits discrimination based on disability in public entities. These laws are enforced by the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights (OCR) and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). Students may seek internal or external redress when they believe that their accommodations have not been implemented properly, that they have been discriminated against in some other way, or that they are the subject of retaliation based on their disability-related complaints. UMUC students who seek disability accommodations under these legal provisions must register with UMUC's Office of Disability Services and work within the office's established framework for providing accommodations. This accommodations process is described in more detail below. Overview of UMUC's Accommodations Process Unlike students enrolled in P–12 public education, college students are not automatically entitled to receive special education accommodations. Students with disabilities in higher education, including those at UMUC, are required to self-identify to receive reasonable accommodations. In addition, students enrolled at UMUC are expected to act as self-advocates with the support of ODS to ensure proper implementation of their accommodations. Once a student with a disability self-identifies and/or requests accommodations, ODS begins an analysis to determine whether the student qualifies for ADA accommodations. The analysis includes the following steps: Determining whether the student is an individual with a disability within the meaning of the ADA; Engaging in an interactive dialogue with the student, using the student as a source of information to determine how the student's condition or disability impacts him/her and to decide what accommodations are most suitable; Determining whether the accommodation is reasonable and readily achievable, which is typically done Providing Access and Equality for UMUC's Students with Disabilities - DE Oracle by reading the course description, reviewing the course syllabus, and working with academic directors and/or faculty; Determining whether the nature of the course is fundamentally altered by the provision of the accommodation; and Determining whether the provision of the accommodation presents an undue financial or administrative burden on the university. After ODS staff complete this analysis and determines that a student qualifies for ODS assistance, accommodations are created and a final accommodation letter is sent to the faculty and the student. Ideally, this process should take place three to four weeks prior to the start of each semester/term. Students are encouraged to contact the ODS office in advance so that staff have sufficient time in which to communicate with students, make a proper assessment, and set up appropriate accommodations. What is a "Disability"? According to the ADA, a person with a disability is someone who: 1. Has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities; 2. Has a record of such an impairment; or 3. Is regarded as having such an impairment. ODS relies primarily on a student's medical or other professional documentation to determine whether he/she is qualified to receive accommodations. Documentation used to support an ADA request must: Be current (generally not more than three years old); Provide a clear description of the student's disability and current level of functioning; Clearly describe the student's functional limitations in the educational setting; and Be completed by a certified professional who holds the credentials to address the student's disability. Disability Categories The documentation provided by the student will identify the disability category and assist ODS in understanding the student's functional limitations so that appropriate accommodations can be developed. A common misconception is that disabilities are visible. However, many of the students registered with ODS are living with invisible mental, emotional, psychological, and learning disabilities —including students who have been diagnosed with depression, bipolar disorder, attention deficit disorder (ADD), traumatic brain injury (TBI), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In addition, ODS assists students with the following medical conditions: Paralysis Cancer Diabetes Chronic severe migraines Chronic fatigue syndrome Epilepsy Visual impairments/blindness Hearing impairments/deafness Although ODS serves students with a variety of disabilities, not every medical condition is covered by the law. Conditions that are temporary in nature, such as pregnancy, broken/sprained limbs, and allergic conjunctivitis, are excluded from the legal definition of disability. Universities are not required to provide accommodations for these circumstances. Although temporary conditions do not qualify for services from ODS, ODS staff will still attempt to facilitate a resolution with the student's instructor. Accommodations and Services Providing Access and Equality for UMUC's Students with Disabilities - DE Oracle Once the ODS staff confirms that the requesting student is an individual with a disability who is entitled to receive accommodations, the staff will work with the student and faculty/academic department to develop reasonable accommodations based on the student's individual needs and course requirements. Under the ADA, a reasonable accommodation is a modification or adjustment to a course, program, service, activity, or facility that enables a qualified student with a disability to have an equal opportunity to attain the same level of performance or enjoy equal benefits and privileges as are available to similarly situated students without disabilities. UMUC is not required to fulfill students' every request. Instead, the university will provide what the student needs so that he/she is given equal access to the course. Similarly, universities are generally not required to provide students with personal devices or assistance for personal use, including, but not limited to, wheelchairs, eye glasses, hearing aids, transportation, special classes, personal assistance for eating or dressing, and other personal services or readers for personal use. While ODS generally does not provide assistive technology for student use, the office will provide technical assistance to students who need it. Finally, ODS will not grant accommodations that will fundamentally alter the essential components of any course. ODS will craft a variety of accommodations depending on the student's needs. Some of the most common accommodations are: Test-taking accommodations Sign language interpreters Transcription Alternate format materials Simplified directions Flexibility with deadlines/additional time on assignments A future installment regarding disability accommodations will feature additional resources for UMUC faculty related to collaborating with ODS as well as tips and strategies for working with student disability issues. For More Information To receive more information/training on students with disabilities or course accessibility, please do not hesitate to contact the Office of Disability Services at [email protected] (mailto:[email protected]) or 240-684-2287 240-684-2287. Additional information is also available on the ODS Web site (http://www.umuc.edu/students/support/disabilities/) . About the Author(s) Robyn Seabrook is the Assistant Vice President for Institutional Resolution and Accessibility at UMUC. She has also served as Associate General Counsel in UMUC's Office of Legal and Government Affairs. Prior to joining UMUC, Robyn was an education law associate with a Virginia law firm. She also worked with the Virginia Department of Education's Office of Dispute Resolution and Administrative Services, where she investigated and resolved special education law complaints throughout the state. Robyn earned her bachelor's degree from the University of Virginia and her J.D. from Temple University School of Law. She is a member of the Maryland and Virginia state bars. Rating: Not yet rated Comments No comments posted. Providing Access and Equality for UMUC's Students with Disabilities - DE Oracle Contact Site Manager Created and Maintained by the Center for Support of Instruction © University of Maryland University College Powered by ArticleMS from ArticleTrader.com You must be logged in and be a member of the UMUC community in order to comment. If you are a member of the UMUC community and do not have an account, please register for a FREE one. If you have a guest account but are Faculty/Staff of UMUC please send an email to the DE Oracle Site Manager (mailto:[email protected]?subject=Please Update my DE Oracle Guest Account) so that your guest account can be updated. Providing Access and Equality for UMUC's Students with Disabilities - DE Oracl

Creating Community in Online Classrooms - DE Oracle

Author: Fu Sabrina
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College
Publication date: 2012
Field of study

DE Oracle @ UMUC An Online Learning Magazine for UMUC Faculty Center for Support of Instruction Creating Community in Online Classrooms Sabrina Fu Collegiate Professor School of Undergraduate Studies Published: January-February 2012 Category: » Online-pedagogy » Teaching-strategies Introduction Humans are social animals; as social animals, we learn best when we feel we are part of a learning community. Researchers such as Braxton, Hirschy, and McClendon (2004), Burkhard (2007), Cheng and Vassileva (2006), Gronek (2005), and Tinto (2003) describe some methods in which this concept is utilized. Students apply to universities whose learning communities they want to join based, in part, on both the physical setting and student body profile, and colleges have historically formed their learning communities through their selective admissions processes. By contrast, UMUC prides itself on being an open university with a student body that spans a wide range of ages, races, socio-economic standings, and a number of other distinguishing characteristics. In addition, with so many classes online that have little or no face-to-face interaction, forming community at our institution is one step removed from that of traditional universities. It is a challenge to unite as diverse a group of learners as we have at UMUC and for everyone to thrive, but it is also an opportunity to see how well we can grow and learn together in the 21st century. This article discusses various approaches I have taken to help build community online with a diverse student body and the results of those methods. Background I began teaching online for UMUC in fall 2001 as a new adventure. I found that some students excelled online while others faded away. I used e-mail to reach out to students who were falling behind. Most of the time, it did not work—and that was frustrating. It was clear from comments made by students both in the online classroom and in private e-mails to me that they had little connection with their classmates and the university as a whole during their time at UMUC—and essentially none after they left. Based on my own undergraduate peer-mentoring experience (I had been part of a institution-wide program that reached out to students to help increase retention of under-represented groups), I wondered whether we would be able to increase connections at UMUC by allowing students to reach out to each other in a less formal manner and whether we could form online communities as a way to connect the members of our diverse student body to each other and to the university. Early Online Community Building Work and Challenges Various studies (for example, Braxton, et al. (2004), Likins (1991), and Tinto (1993)) have shown that college student retention rates increase with increased identity with the college due to a sense of community among classmates and professors. Using the results of these studies, I began emphasizing conversations between students and also students making connections between concepts learned in the classroom and their everyday lives as part of forming community in my own online classrooms. The connections and relevant conversations between students—including providing different perspectives and gentle clarifications and corrections of each other's inputs—were all part of classroom discussions Creating Community in Online Classrooms - DE Oracle that typically amounted to about 20% of their overall grade. Students actively participated in helping each other learn in these discussions, as evidenced by both the quality and quantity of conference posts. (In my present Air Quality Management class, for example, one weekly conference had over 280 posts, with the majority of those posts adding to the conversation on the topics read and the video presentations viewed that week.) At the same time, it became clear, too, that forming community outside individual classrooms was also needed, and so I was thrilled to become a part of UMUC's outreach to students with the creation of the Environmental Management Club in 2005. In this online club space, students can continue to form community outside their individual classrooms, and UMUC alumni can come back to discuss new careers they have started—thus allowing current and former students to form connections with each other. For almost a decade now, I have attempted to build community in my online classrooms through active discussions in which I help students think critically about issues and encourage them to make connections and share experiences that are related to the concepts we cover in each course. I have done this for courses in education, physical science, behavioral science, and environmental management. In some classes, the students have shared a great deal, allowing their fellow classmates—as well as myself—to bond with them and learn from them. But efforts to create community do not always succeed with every student. Some students just do not want to share, and others have issues with delving deeper into concepts and topics. There are also some students who just post quickly and then run off to other things in life—which does happen with those students who work full time and/or have several other responsibilities on a daily basis. Overcoming these issues requires an extensive amount of intervention on the instructor's part so that a sense of community amongst all (or most) of the class members can be created. Although these same issues are present to some extent at other institutions, most of them do not face the same challenge as we do at UMUC in uniting such a diverse group of learners. A New Approach A few years ago, I became even more interested in building community online as a result of my neighborhood work to help people change towards more sustainable behaviors. Social science research, studying a range of behaviors from hand-washing to energy conservation to recycling, indicates that the dominant factors in changing people's behaviors are associated with a sense of belonging in society. Consequently, I increased my efforts to facilitate a sense of belonging among my students by providing a safe place where they could share and talk without any interference from me. BEHS 365 Individuals, Society, and Environmental Sustainability, the course in which I tried this new approach, is an interdisciplinary course examining the state of our environment, how we got here, what behavioral changes we need to move toward sustainability, and the role of individuals and society in that movement. There are no prerequisites, and students come from a wide range of backgrounds. Social science evidence, such as that noted by Guerin, et al. (2001), Nigbur, et al. (2005), Valle, et al. (2005), Price (2008), and Welte (2010), shows that human beings are most likely to change when they feel that their community is changing with them—a concept I particularly wanted to capitalize on as we discussed recycling and sustainability behavior changes throughout the course. To help the learning process, I tapped into the resources that students could provide for each other in such an interdisciplinary class by creating a separate "Who are we?" conference in the classroom. The purpose of this conference was not to give, find, or evaluate answers but rather to share relevant personal stories and thoughts. Participation in this conference accounted for a small portion of the students' grades. There were no right or wrong answers to grade in this conference, which was challenging for me, given my scientific background of having correct answers regarding the occurrence (or not) of specific reactions and the question of how to quantify the resultant data. Creating Community in Online Classrooms - DE Oracle The conference rules were as follows: There are no right or wrong answers, but please share genuinely. I read, but will not respond unless there is something inappropriate in that conference. Postings need to be done on time, with the first posting done at about 40% of the course completion and the following posts due each of the weeks after the first posting. For completing the six requirements below on time, students obtain 100% for 3% of their final grade: First, provide a bit of your background by telling us a story that you think is relevant to the themes in this class. 1. 2. Respond to at least two other students' stories. 3. Respond to all students who have responded to your story. 4. Tell us the most dominant phrase you associate with this class. 5. Hypothesize on what you think is the largest barrier to your own change. Environmental change requires a "we" mentality. Who do you think the "we" consists of in environmental change? 6. I conducted this "Who are we?" conference exercise for a 13-week class in spring 2011 and for a 12-week class in summer 2011. Both classes produced similar results. When compared to classrooms without the conference, I observed the following results in the experimental classes: Students posted more frequently: There were 20–30% more postings each week when averaged over all the students in the class. Postings in the non-graded conference (Water Cooler) were almost doubled. The topics in the final assessment tended to be more creative and have greater depth. I tried this same exercise in my 8-week class in fall 2011. With the 8-week format, students were rushing their input into the "Who are we?" conference as one more thing they needed to do in a short timeframe. Comparing students' comments in this conference and all the other classroom assessments in both the 12- and 13-week formats versus the 8-week format indicates that reflective conferences work best with longer terms. However, I continue to use the interactive discussions in all of my classrooms to tie the concepts we are discussing in class to our everyday lives and our communities because it helps students question, share, discuss, and learn from each other as a community of lifelong learners. Summary Forming community in online classrooms can help enhance the learning environment, resulting in both higher quality and a greater quantity of postings in conferences and better quality final assessments. The difficulty in forming community online is in creating an engaging classroom that encourages students to come back frequently and share. By creating a safe place in the online classroom where students can make emotional connections with each other, learning has the potential to improve. References Braxton, J. M., Hirschy, A. S., & McClendon, S. A. (2004). Toward understanding and reducing college student departure. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report, 30(3). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Burkhard, B. (2007, May). Creating a virtual student community at the University of Maryland [University College]. Perspectives Online, 45(5). Retrieved from http://www.historians.org /perspectives/issues/2007/0705/0705tea1.cfm (http://www.historians.org/perspectives/issues/2007/0705 /0705tea1.cfm) Cheng, R., & Vassileva, J. (2006, September). Design and evaluation of an adaptive incentive mechanism for sustained educational online communities. User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction, 16(3), 321-348. Creating Community in Online Classrooms - DE Oracle Gronek, E. K. H. (2005). Virtual student organizations: Building community in online degree programs. Distance Learning, 2(4), 15-17. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database. Guerin, D., Crete, J., & Mercier, J. (2001, June). A multilevel analysis of the determinants of recycling behavior in the European countries. Social Science Research, 30(2), 195-218. Retrieved from ScienceDirect. Likins, J.M. (1991). Research refutes a myth: Commuter students do want to be involved. NASPA Journal, 29, 68-74. Nigbur, D., Lyons, E. Uzzell, D., & Leach, R. (2005). The Surrey Scholar Research Project in Waste Recycling, 2003-2004. Full Report to Guildford Borough Council. Price, M. (2008). Changing behaviors by degrees. American Psychological Association, 39(3), 48. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/monitor/2008/03/planet.html (http://www.apa.org/monitor /2008/03/planet.html) Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Valle, P.O.D., Rebelo, E., Reis, E., & Menezes, J. (2005, May). Combining behavioral theories to predict recycling involvement. Environment and Behavior, 37(3), 364-396. Retrieved from Psychology: A SAGE Full-Text Collection. Welte, T.H.L., & Anastasio, P.A. (2010). To conserve or not to conserve: Is status the question? Environment and Behavior, 42(6), 845-863. Retrieved from Psychology: A SAGE Full-Text Collection. Related Resources LaPadula, M. (2003). A comprehensive look at online student support services for distance learners. The American Journal of Distance Education, 17(2), 119-128. Oskamp, S. (2000). Psychological contributions to achieving an ecologically sustainable future for humanity. Journal of Social Issues, 56(3), 373-390. Tinto, V. (1975). Dropout from higher education: A theoretical synthesis of recent research. Review of Educational Research, 45(1), 89-125. About the Author(s) Sabrina Fu has taught for UMUC since 2001 in subjects ranging from natural science to environmental management to education to social science. In addition to teaching at UMUC, she works on sustainability issues in Howard County, MD, volunteers for a variety of organizations, and enjoys time with her two daughters and husband. Prior to teaching at UMUC, she was trained as a surface scientist at the University of California, Berkeley, received a post-doctoral fellowship at the Naval Research Center, and managed projects in radioactive and hazardous waste remediation at the Catholic University of America. Rating: Not yet rated Comments No comments posted. You must be logged in and be a member of the UMUC community in order to comment. Creating Community in Online Classrooms - DE Oracle Contact Site Manager Created and Maintained by the Center for Support of Instruction © University of Maryland University College Powered by ArticleMS from ArticleTrader.com If you are a member of the UMUC community and do not have an account, please register for a FREE one. If you have a guest account but are Faculty/Staff of UMUC please send an email to the DE Oracle Site Manager (mailto:[email protected]?subject=Please Update my DE Oracle Guest Account) so that your guest account can be updated. Creating Community in Online Classrooms - DE Oracl

[UNAVAILABLE] Entrepreneurship and Innovation

Author: Bijlani Subash
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 16/02/2012
Field of study

THIS WEBCAST IS NO LONGER AVAILABLE VIA THE LINK. Entrepreneurs act as catalysts for economic change and research, which indicates that they are highly creative individuals who imagine new solutions by generating opportunities for profit or reward. They often possess innate traits, such as a propensity for risk-taking, and are characteristically innovative—often introducing new technologies, increasing efficiency and productivity, or generating new products or services. This view of entrepreneurship builds on the work of Joseph Schumpeter who introduced the idea that macroeconomic equilibrium is being constantly destroyed by entrepreneurs' innovations and that of Robert Solow who established the primacy of technological progress in the advancement of society. It is also supported by Clayton Christensen's concept of disruptive innovation, which describes a process by which products and services threaten existing market leaders by competing from unexpected directions and displacing established competitors.Presented by The Graduate School and the Alumni Association at University of Maryland University College Moderator: Dr. Michael Evanchik, Associate Dean, The Graduate School, University of Maryland University College Webinar Series on InnovationWebinar Series on Innovation • Jan 19 – The Era of Open Innovation Dr. Tom Mierzwa • Feb 16 – Entrepreneurship and Innovation Dr. Subash Bijlani • Mar 15 – Using Design Thinking to Deliver Systemic Innovation Mr. Roy Luebke • Apr 19 – Social Networking: The Essence of Innovation Dr. Jay Liebowitz 2 Presenter: Dr. Subash Bijlani Professor of Practice The Graduate School University of Maryland University College Entrepreneurship and InnovationDiscussion Agenda Entrepreneurship and Innovation in Economic Development Global shifts Economics perspective Innovation Entrepreneurship The entrepreneurial ecosystem Q & A 4 Entrepreneurship and Innovation in Economic Development In US companies less than 5 years old accounted for nearly all net job creation in the United States between 1980 and 2005. New firms create on average approximately 3 million jobs in US each year. 5 Kauffman Foundation Research Series (July 2010)Growing global competition 6 There is an upsurge in entrepreneurship around the world – entrepreneurs are now numbering near 400 million in 54 countries Over 140 million of these entrepreneurs expect to add at least five new jobs over the next five years. These figures and growth projections affirm that entrepreneurial activity is flourishing across the globe. Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (2011), Acs, Z. and Szerb, L. (2010)The rise of the ‘rest’ 7 The rise of the rest is one of the phenomenal changes in the last half of the twentieth century. Amsden, A.H. (2001), van Agtmael, A. (2007), Zakaria, F. (2008). For the first time in history less developed countries have industrialized and caught up in industries requiring large amounts of technological capabilities.Economic Perspectives Classical economics did not incorporate a systematic treatment of innovation or entrepreneurship. The dominant perspective of most economists over the last two centuries, represented by the works of Roy Harrod (1900-1978) and Evesy Domar (1914-1978) to explain an economy's growth rate in terms of the level of saving and productivity of capital. It was based on an exogenous technology progress model - a phenomenon coming from outside the economic system. 8 Domar, E. (1946), Harrod, R. F. (1948)Leontief Paradox Leontief (1936) reached a paradoxical conclusion that the USA, a capital abundant country, was exporting labor-intensive commodities and importing capital- intensive commodities. It undermined the validity of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory that countries with plentiful natural resources will generally have a comparative advantage in products using those resources. 9 Leontief, W. W. (1936) Wassily Leontief (1905-1999)Solow’s ‘Exogenous’ Residual 10 Robert Solow found an ‘exogenous’ residual associated with technical change in US economy according to calculations that related national output to capital and labor inputs only. About four-fifths of the growth in US output per worker emanated from technical progress. Robert Merton Solow (born 1924) Solow, R. M. (1957) 11 Endogenous growth theory tried to overcome this shortcoming by building macroeconomic models out of microeconomic foundations. In Endogenous growth theory investment in human capital, innovation and knowledge are significant contributors to economic growth. Endogenous growth theory demonstrates that national policy measures have an impact on the long-run growth rate of an economy. Romer’s model (Romer, 1990) Paul Romer (born 1955)Creative Destruction “The fundamental impulse that…keeps the capitalist engine in motion comes from the new consumers, goods, the new methods of production or transportation, the new markets, the new forms of industrial organization that capitalist enterprise creates” The process of Creative Destruction is the essential fact about capitalism. It is what capitalism consists in and what every capitalist concern has got to live in…” 12 Schumpeter, J. A. (1939)Kondratiev waves Pace of Innovation 1999 60 yrs 55 yrs 40 yrs 50 yrs 30 yrs 1735 1845 1900 1950 1990 2020 Water Power Textiles Iron Steam Rail Steel Electricity Chemicals Internal-Combustion Engine Petrochemicals Electronics Aviation Digital Software Media Biotech 1st Wave 3rd Wave 2nd Wave 4th Wave 5th Wave 13 Kondratiev, N. D. (1935). Innovation and Inventions Invention To conceive the idea Innovation To use - the process by which an invention or idea is translated into the economy 14 Examples: Dot-com boom Clinical medicine iPod IBM PC 15 Processes Organizational forms Systems Services Business models Products Innovation Types of innovation Carlsson & Stankiewicz (1995), Dosi’s (1988), Lundvall (1992), Nelson & Rosenberg (1993) Innovation opportunities 16 Peter Drucker, defined 7 classes of “Opportunities”. He named these the "Sources of Innovation": The unexpected Incongruities Process needs Industry and market structure Demographics Changes in perception New knowledge Drucker, P. F. (1985), Dean, T. J. and McMullen, J.S. (2007)Disruptive innovation The theory of disruptive innovation, suggested by Clayton Christensen, describes a process by which a product or service takes root initially in simple applications at the bottom of a market and then relentlessly moves ‘up market’, eventually displacing established competitors. 17 Christensen and Bower, 1995 Christensen, 1997 Christensen and Raynor, 2003 Clayton M. Christensen (born 1952)Cycle of innovation by pioneer entrepreneur and copying by imitators 18 Profit Competitive Position Achieved Superior Customer Value Sources of Advantage R&D. Processes Knowledge and Skills Counter-moves by Imitators Erodes Advantage Investments in Renewal R&D. Processes Knowledge and Skills Performance Revenue Profit Market Share Pioneer Entrepreneur’s Key Success Factors Barriers to Imitation Porter, M. (1985), Barney, J, (1991)Types of Entrepreneurs Social entrepreneur - places passion before profit when launching a business. Seek to develop innovative solutions to global problems that can be copied by others to enact change. Serial entrepreneur - continuously comes up with new ideas and starts new businesses. More likely to take risks and recover from business failure. Lifestyle entrepreneur - choose a business model intended to develop and grow business to make a long-term, sustainable and viable living working in a field where they have a particular interest, knowledge or high degree of expertise Inventing entrepreneur - usually scientists and/or researchers who have developed new technologies or technology applications to meet market needs or create new markets. 19 George, G. and Bock, A. J. (2009)Traits of entrepreneurs 20 What makes someone an entrepreneur? The entrepreneurial personality is, on the one hand, socially constructed, but on the other hand, presents consistency in behaviors, skills and competencies. Desire for commitment Preference for moderate risk – risk eliminators rather than risk takers Confidence in their ability to succeed Desire for immediate feedback High level of energy Future orientation Skill at organizing Value of achievement over moneyIntrapreneurship 21 Intrapreneurship is the practice of a corporate management style that integrates risk-taking and innovation approaches, as well as the reward and motivational techniques, that are more traditionally thought of as being the province of entrepreneurship. Pinchot, G. (1985). http://www.utdallas.edu/~chasteen/Reinventing%20the%20intrapreneur.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrapreneurship http://www.bnet.com/article/great-intrapreneurs-in-business-history/19688822 Policy Support Culture Finance Markets Human Capital Entrepreneurship The entrepreneurship ecosystem The Entrepreneurship Ecosystem consists of the elements outside the individual entrepreneur that are conducive to, or inhibitive of, the choice of a person to become an entrepreneur, or the probabilities of his or her success following launch. Hughes (1965) Jones (1981, 1988) Improving the environment for entrepreneurship 23 "Entrepreneurs embody the promise of America: the idea that if you have a good idea and are willing to work hard and see it through, you can succeed in this country. And in fulfilling this promise, entrepreneurs also play a critical role in expanding our economy and creating jobs." —President Barack Obama, January 31, 2011 AGREE Act On Nov 15, 2011Senators Chris Coons (D-DE) and Marco Rubio (R-FL) introduced The American Growth, Recovery, Empowerment and Entrepreneurship Act. Startup America Act U.S. Senators Jerry Moran (R-Kan.) and Mark Warner (D-Va.) introduced bipartisan legislation on Dec 8, 2011 aimed at jumpstarting the economy through the creation and growth of new businesses. Comments…. Questions? 24 Contact information: Dr Subash Bijlani E-mail: [email protected] Phone: 240-684-2487 View slides at http://www.umuc.edu/library/libresearch/ 25 References Acs, Z. J. and Szerb, L. (2010). Global Entrepreneurship and the United States. 63 pages. Under contract no SBAHQ-09-M-0288. Amsden, A.H. (2001). The Rise of "The Rest": Challenges to the West from Late-Industrializing Economies. New York: Oxford University Press. Barney, J. (1991) Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage. Journal of Management, 17(1), 99-120. Retrieved from http://jom.sagepub.com/ Carlsson, B., & Stankiewicz, R. (1995). On the nature, function and composition of technological systems. In Carlsson (Ed.), Technological systems and economic performance: The case of factory automation (pp. 21-56). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Christensen, C. M. (1997). The Innovator's Dilemma. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Christensen, C. M., & Bower, J. L. (1995). Disruptive Technologies: Catching the Wave. Harvard Business Review, January-February 1995 Christensen, C. M., & Raynor, M. E. (2003). The Innovator's Solution. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Dean, T. J. & McMullen, J.S. (2007, January). Toward a theory of sustainable entrepreneurship: reducing environmental degradation through entrepreneurial action. Journal of Business Venturing, 22(1), 50-76. Domar, E. (1946). Capital expansion, rate of growth, and employment. Econometrica, 14(2),137-47. Retrieved from http://www.econometricsociety.org/ Dosi, G. (1988). Sources, procedures and microeconomic effects of innovation, Journal of Economic Literature, 26(3), 1120-71. Retrieved from: http://www.aeaweb.org/journal Drucker, P. F. (1985). Innovative and Entrepreneurship, Practice and Principles. Harper & Row. George, G. and Bock, A. J. (2009). Inventing Entrepreneurs – Technology Inventors and their Entrepreneurial Journey. Upper Sadle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (2011). GEM 2011 Global Report. http://www.gemconsortium.org/docs/download/2201References Harrod, R. F. (1948). Toward a dynamic economics: Some recent developments of economic theory and their application to policy. London: Macmillan. Hughes, J.R.T. (1965). The Vital Few: The Entrepreneur & American Economic Progress. New York: Oxford University Press. Jones, E. (1981). The European Miracle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jones, E. (1988). Growth Recurring. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Kondratieff, N. D. (1935). The long waves in economic Life. Review of Economic Statistics. 17(6), 105-115. Retrieved from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/loi/rest Leontief, W. W. (1936). Quantitative input and output relations in the economic system of the United States. Review of Economics and Statistics, 18(3), 105-125. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1927837 Lundvall, B. A. (1992). Introduction, in B. A. Lundvall. (Ed.) (1992). National systems of innovation: Towards a theory of innovation and interactive learning. London: Pinter Publishers. Nelson, R.R. & Rosenberg, N. (1993). Technical innovation and national systems. In R. R. Pinchot, G. (1985). Intrapreneuring: Why You Don't Have to Leave the Corporation to Become an Entrepreneur. Harper & Row. Porter, M., (1985) Technology and competitive advantage. Journal of Business Strategy, 5(000003), 60-78. Retrieved from www.emeraldinsight.com/info/journals/jbs/jbs.jsp Schumpeter, J. A. (1939). The theory of economic development : an inquiry into profits, capital, credit, interest, and the business cycle. Translated from the German by Redvers Opie (1961) New York: Oxford University Press. Solow, R.M. (1957). Technical progress and the aggregate production function. Review of Economics and Statistics, 39(3), 312-320. Retrieved from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/loi/rest van Agtmael, A. (2007). The Emerging Markets Century: How a New Breed of World-Class Companies Is Overtaking the World. New York: Free Press

Madagascar and globalization: Take the good with the bad?

Author: Hurn Kelly
Publication venue: University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Publication date: 2012
Field of study

The cartoon version of Madagascar is becoming less and less of a reality and it is starting to look more like the areas that are familiar to us in our daily lives. The deforestation is making the biodiversity hotspots that Madagascar is known for disappear. Globalization has had such an impact on the people and environment of Madagascar that it could possibly never recover. The people of Madagascar are struggling to balance the short term gains of globalization with its long term effects on their island, and they are powerless to do anything about it.Madagascar 1 Madagascar and Globalization: Take the Good With the Bad? Kelly Hurn Social Science [email protected] Madagascar 2 When most people think of Madagascar, they think of lush rainforests, beautiful beaches, exotic animals, and dancing lemurs. This is what our culture has taught us. Unfortunately, this cartoon version of Madagascar is becoming less and less of a reality and it is starting to look more like the areas that are familiar to us in our daily lives. The rainforests are being destroyed to make room for commerce and for the pricey, in-demand woods that they create. This deforestation is making the biodiversity hotspots that Madagascar is known for disappear. Globalization has had such an impact on the people and environment of Madagascar that it could possibly never recover. The people of Madagascar are struggling to balance the short term gains of globalization with its long term effects on their island. The way globalization has touched Madagascar is explained by Jayasuriya (2008) as being through “Mainly trade liberalization, export promotion, and capital inflows” (p. 5). While some of these might not seem too menacing, the export promotion spoken of comes from deforestation. This started in 1997 with President Ratsiraka of Madagascar looking for the help of other countries in developing Madagascar. In fact, according to the U.S. Department of State Diplomacy in Action, he “Welcomed relations with all countries interested in helping Madagascar to develop” (para. 16). Some of these countries came in and developed their companies in Madagascar, bringing with them jobs and goods for Madagascar to use in entering the international trading markets. But, what was the cost to the land and native people? Madagascar made it through modernization with only a few scars. One of the primary ways this island was touched was through the spread of Christianity. According to the U.S. Madagascar 3 Dept. of State, “About 41% of the Malagasy are Christian…Many incorporate the cult of the dead with their religious beliefs and bless their dead at church before proceeding with the traditional rites” (para. 8). So, even though modernization was attempted, the Malagasy have held onto those beliefs they have had for over 1,000 years. Obviously, the Malagasy people live by the basic definition of postmodernism that, according to Module 3 (2012) has “recognized that truth is more likely based on individual perception and interpretation” (para. 3). It is the blending of Christianity and their traditional religious beliefs that allow the people of Madagascar to celebrate life and death in ways that are both sensible and historic to them. The fact that the Malagasy have managed to hold onto their basic religious beliefs in the face of globalization is to be recognized and respected. The fact that globalization is happening cannot be ignored. According to Jull, Ibrahim, and Meredith (2007) “The presence of increasing numbers of foreigners – including tourists, but also researchers, business and tourism investors, development workers, missionaries, and students – connects the island more and more to global trends” (p. 732). The ability of the Malagasy to prevent globalization trends in their country is slowly being eroded as the traditional older people pass away. The younger generations are fascinated with what the world has to offer. While they won’t leave the island, they try to embody the ideas they have about the rest of the world. Malagasy youth have embraced the concept of globalization. A blog posting by R1Lita (2008) demonstrates this very well. “I decided to ask one of them about the importance and the meaning of Halloween celebration in Madagascar. He just responded to me like this: Come Madagascar 4 on! We’re young! We wanna be cool! Halloween is cool! That’s why we party during October 31st! You see, it’s like in the movies!” (para. 1). Even Halloween, which has no religious or traditional importance to Madagascar is being celebrated. The Malagasy youth see movies from the United States and aspire to be like the “cool” people they see in the film. Another description of Malagasy youth comes from Rich (2011) who states “The urban youth of Madagascar have received the influence of global forces, and now dress very much the same as youth in Chicago, Paris, or Tokyo, and listen to music familiar to their peers in many places around the world” (para. 1). As you can see, the youth don’t seem to mind the positive side effects of globalization, but what about the negative? One of the major international companies that has invaded Madagascar is Rio Tinto, a mining company based in Britain. Not only is the company’s disregard for the environment alarming, but also their disregard for the health of the Malagasy. Instead of employing the native people of Madagascar, Rio Tinto instead brings in guest workers from other areas in Africa. It is this import of workers, according to Rich (2011) that “Is given partial credit for increasing rates of HIV infection on the island. Madagascar use to be noted by public health officials mainly for three types of disease, all exacerbated by malnutrition…The island’s isolation offered protection, however, from HIV and AIDS” (para. 1). This is no longer the case. Madagascar does not have the medical facilities to deal with the increase in HIV/AIDS cases. This company, Rio Tinto, originally thought to be helping the Malagasy with the prospect of work has not only taken that work away from them, but brought in a health concern that they have not had to deal with before. Madagascar 5 The import of disease is not the only problem imported by Rio Tinto. Their handling of sensitive environmental bio-diversity hot spots is also questionable. When Rio Tinto came into Madagascar, there were strict mining restrictions in place. However, according to Ashby, Goldstein, and VanDort (2011) “(Rio Tinto) has been able to influence the local government to lift mining restrictions in order to maximize short-term profits. This has caused a marked decrease in environmental protection and has negatively impacted biodiversity” (p. 3). With the restrictions lifted, there are not any regulations in place to protect the native animals of the island. Many of these animals are not found anywhere else in the world –except zoos. There are numerous animals and plants lost every day as the last of their species is killed, many of these have never even been discovered. Unfortunately, the people of Madagascar are powerless against the pull of globalization. After all, as Ashby, et al (2011) points out “Madagascar is one of the poorest countries in the world, with an external debt of $4,175 million” (p. 2). As seems to be one of the general rules of globalization, he who has the money makes the rules. This is especially true on the small island nation of Madagascar, and they are powerless to do anything about it. Madagascar 6 References Ashby, M., Goldstein, Z., & VanDort, C. (2011). A race to the bottom: The adverse effects of globalization on environmental standards. Retrieved from: http://www.globalchange.umich.edu Jayasuriya, R. (2008, March). The effects of globalization on working conditions in developing countries: \ An analysis framework and country study results. Retrieved from: http://www.worldbank.org/labormarkets. Kull, C., Ibrahim, D., & Meredith, T. (2007). Tropical forest transitions and globalization: Neo- liberalism, migration, tourism, and international agendas. Society and Natural Resources, 20: 720-737. DOI: 10.1080/08941920 7801329702 Majeski, R., Damond, M., & Fisch, M. (2012). Module Three. The Individual and Society. Retrieved from: http://tychousa4.umuc.edu/cgi-bin/id/CDI/index.pl R1Lita. (2008). Halloween, an example of cultural globalization [web log post]. Retrieved from: http://www.iceenglishclub.org/2008/12/09/halloween-an-example. Rich, C. (2011). Discerning creation’s truth: Globalization and the church. Retrieved from http://www.exxlesio.com/2011/11. U.S. Department of State Diplomacy In Action (2011). Background notes: Madagascar. Retrieved from: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5460.htm

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