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Systematic exploration of a constructivist approach to cultural adaptation: A model for advancing intercultural effectiveness
No full textPurpose: To trace the evolution of 100 years of cultural research, to identify major gaps in current cultural inquiry, and to present an integrated interpretivist/constructivist model for advancing intercultural effectiveness.A Systematic Exploration of a Constructivist Approach to Cultural Adaptation:
A Model for Advancing Intercultural Effectiveness
Mohammad Fattah
Dissertation Advisors:
Dennis Winters, PhD and Sharon Hadary, DBA
Summer 201
Towards a Framework of the Social Franchise: A Management Construct for Nonprofit Leaders
No full textContinuing pressure on nonprofit organizational leadership to develop strategies
to sustain their capacity to serve their constituents is driving management towards
increasingly business-like approaches and models. The Social Franchise is an emerging
construct whereby nonprofit organizations engage the franchise model in support of their
mission through the generation of net income, the creation of meaningful employment
opportunities for the populations they serve, and elevating awareness for their primary
mission in their community. As leaders from the nonprofit sector continue to be attracted
to the franchise model, which expose their organizations to new and potentially
pernicious outcomes, there are critical issues that management should consider in their
quest to extract benefit. The naturally occurring tension between the societal mission of a
nonprofit organization and the decidedly profit orientation of a franchise create
competing objectives requiring new approaches to achieve “both”. These elements are
effectively expanding the requisite capabilities of nonprofit management and this paper
seeks to develop a clearer understanding of those issues and to provide the foundation for
evolving theories and practices to address them.Towards a Framework of the Social Franchise:
A Management Construct for Nonprofit Leaders
By
Benjamin C. Litalien
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland University College,
in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Management
2012
Advisory Committee:
Michael Evanchik, Ph.D., Chair
Dennis Winters, Ph.D.
December 30, 2012
The Social Franchise
ii
Abstract
Continuing pressure on nonprofit organizational leadership to develop strategies
to sustain their capacity to serve their constituents is driving management towards
increasingly business-like approaches and models. The Social Franchise is an emerging
construct whereby nonprofit organizations engage the franchise model in support of their
mission through the generation of net income, the creation of meaningful employment
opportunities for the populations they serve, and elevating awareness for their primary
mission in their community. As leaders from the nonprofit sector continue to be attracted
to the franchise model, which expose their organizations to new and potentially
pernicious outcomes, there are critical issues that management should consider in their
quest to extract benefit. The naturally occurring tension between the societal mission of a
nonprofit organization and the decidedly profit orientation of a franchise create
competing objectives requiring new approaches to achieve “both”. These elements are
effectively expanding the requisite capabilities of nonprofit management and this paper
seeks to develop a clearer understanding of those issues and to provide the foundation for
evolving theories and practices to address them.
Keywords: Social Franchise, nonprofit management, innovative strategies
The Social Franchise
iii
Dedication
I dedicate this research to my family that supported me throughout this journey,
including Raeann, Laura, Tyler & Everett, Rebecca, Jonathan, my mom Bonnie Haines
and my in-laws Bob and Pat Young.
The Social Franchise
iv
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my advisors Professor Michael A. Evanchik for his steady
guidance and Professor Dennis Winters his for wisdom and support. In addition, without
the words from Dr. Kathleen Edwards and the discipline of Dr. Leslie Dinauer this
dissertation would not have been possible. I am also grateful to Dr. Tulinda Larsen, Dr.
Leverne Laws and each cohort member along the journey for their guidance, advice,
critiques, discussions, and positive support. Finally, I would like to thank my wife,
Raeann, for her never-ending encouragement and support throughout this process and
life.
The Social Franchise
v
Table of Contents
Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iv
Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem .........................................................................................1
Statement of the Purpose .........................................................................................2
Step One .......................................................................................................3
Step Two ......................................................................................................3
Step Three ....................................................................................................3
Step Four ......................................................................................................4
Context / Background Related to the Problem ........................................................4
Theoretical Base.......................................................................................................6
Research Questions ..................................................................................................7
RQ1 ..............................................................................................................7
RQ2 ..............................................................................................................8
Definition of Terms..................................................................................................9
Significance............................................................................................................13
Chapter 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................16
Research Strategy...................................................................................................16
Research Themes ...................................................................................................16
Theme 1 - Definitions ................................................................................17
The Social Franchise
vi
Theme 2 - Governance ...............................................................................17
Theme 3 - Implications ..............................................................................17
Theme 4 - Management .............................................................................17
Definitions..............................................................................................................18
Franchising .................................................................................................18
Social Enterprise ........................................................................................21
Social Franchise .........................................................................................22
Governance ............................................................................................................23
Implications............................................................................................................25
Management ...........................................................................................................27
Systems Theory ......................................................................................................29
Agency Theory.......................................................................................................30
Affirmative Challenges ..............................................................................31
Negative Consequences .............................................................................31
Institutional Theory ................................................................................................32
Conclusions from Research ...................................................................................34
Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework ....................................................................................35
Introduction ............................................................................................................35
Figure 1 – The Social Franchise Model .................................................................36
Defining the Participants........................................................................................37
Considering the External Factors ...........................................................................37
Considering the Internal Factors for Nonprofit Organizations ..............................42
The Social Franchise
vii
Determinants of Success or Failure .......................................................................46
P1: Nonprofit Management must consider and effectively manage the
internal factors ...........................................................................................46
P2: Addressing the Governance Issues will have a dramatic impact on the
outcome ......................................................................................................47
P3: Local implications are easily overlooked but critical to consider .......47
Chapter 4: Methodology ....................................................................................................49
Theory and Practice of Evidence-based Research .................................................49
Discussion of Scholarly Research Evidence from Web of Science .......................50
Key References ......................................................................................................53
Expert Panel Influence ...........................................................................................58
Credentials of the Experts ......................................................................................59
Expert #1 ....................................................................................................59
Expert #2 ....................................................................................................60
Expert #3 ....................................................................................................60
Summary of Methodology .....................................................................................61
Chapter 5: Findings and Analysis ......................................................................................63
Summary of the Findings .......................................................................................63
Synthesis ................................................................................................................65
RQ1 - What are the management attributes and skills necessary for
effectively conflating a franchise program with a nonprofit organization’s
long-term strategy? ....................................................................................66
The Social Franchise
viii
RQ2 - What are the governance issues that must be effectively addressed
in order to facilitate a franchise program within a nonprofit organization?70
RQ3 - What are the local market implications? .........................................75
Public Relations .........................................................................................77
Reputation ..................................................................................................77
Local Business Community .......................................................................78
Summary ....................................................................................................78
Use of an Expert Panel ...........................................................................................79
Feedback Offered .......................................................................................79
Summary of Feedback by Question ...........................................................80
Discussion of Changes Made .....................................................................82
Discussion of Changes Not Made ..............................................................83
Summary of Expert Reviewers Feedback ..................................................83
Conclusions ............................................................................................................84
Chapter 6: Implications, Trends & Future Research .........................................................85
Introduction ............................................................................................................85
Key Findings from Study .......................................................................................85
Implications for Management Theory and Practice ...............................................87
Management Theory ..................................................................................87
Management Practice .................................................................................88
Recommendations ..................................................................................................90
R1: Franchise Education ............................................................................90
The Social Franchise
ix
R2: Developing an Integrated Approach ...................................................92
Limitations and Study Gaps ...................................................................................95
Conclusions ............................................................................................................97
References ..........................................................................................................................99
The Social Franchise 1
Chapter 1: Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Corporate leadership has as a primary concern the ongoing viability of the
organization and within the nonprofit sector specifically, leadership is on an advancing
journey to stabilize and secure their ability to fulfill their mission (Stull, 2009). This
journey leads them down many traditional paths to develop funding sources, to attract
and maintain volunteers and talent, and to develop a reputation worthy of ongoing
engagement by numerous stakeholders (Jäger, Kreutzer & Beyes, 2009). Increasingly,
nonprofit leadership must navigate amid unstable economic circumstances (Gliedt &
Parker, 2007), most notably the distribution of limited resources to social sector activities
(Kong, 2010). Corporate support, donor giving and foundation grants have been the
stalwarts for funding social sector activities in the United States, yet, increasingly they
are falling short due to the sustained global recession. This situation creates a dichotomy
of increasing societal need and shrinking funding sources, and it is the impetus for a
broad array of nonprofit leadership to consider alternative strategies. Management’s
goals are clear: diversify revenue streams and reduce dependency on traditional methods
(Dees & Anderson, 2003).
This foray into the congeries of non-traditional business practices has led to some
unwelcome affects; leadership may not possess the internal knowledge or experience to
adequately evaluate and subsequently manage some potentially beneficial strategies
(Kark & Van Dijk, 2007). One such strategy is franchising which is a well-established
schema that historically. The business format franchise model, hereafter referred to as
The Social Franchise 2
“franchise” or “franchising”, has been credited with providing an effective platform for
profitable expansion of a business concept. Yet, that history is also replete with well-documented
failures, especially when the clear factors associated with success in the
franchise model are ignored (Shane & Spellman, 1998). The statistics related to the
economic success of the franchise model suggests that if managed properly, it may have a
place in the strategic plans supporting a nonprofits mission (Lafontaine & Blair, 2009).
However, there has been limited interaction between nonprofit organizations and
franchise sector either directly through nonprofit ownership of franchise businesses or
franchise companies support of nonprofit organizational activities. In the franchise
model, the franchisor is the owner of a concept that grants limited rights to a franchisee to
operate under a common brand for the payment of a fee(s) (Dant, 2008). According to
the International Franchise Association’s study in 2004, there are fewer than 100
nonprofit owned franchise business relationships in the United States (IFA, 2012). For
purposes of this study, a Social Franchise is defined as a nonprofit controlled, through
ownership or otherwise, existing franchise business (e.g. a YMCA that owns and operates
a Subway sandwich franchise). No research has been conducted since the IFA study in
2004 relative to Social Franchise activity in the United States. There is a clear void of
management guidance for nonprofit leadership dedicated to the franchise model, which
leaves leadership in a vulnerable position, especially given their nescience in the unique
franchise sector (Litalien, 2006; Tracey & Jarvis, 2007).
Statement of the Purpose
Providing a conceptual framework for The Social Franchise that includes a
constructive guide for nonprofit leadership is the purpose of this dissertation theory
paper. The Social Franchise concept is in its infancy, and there are an array of
The Social Franchise 3
complicated issues and developing factors that have yet to be given adequate
consideration by researchers. This paper seeks to address some of the extant issues that
the Social Franchise participants must consider prior to pursuing a commercial
relationship, then a closer look at the key elements nonprofit management must address
to improve the potential for an effective outcome with a Social Franchise, as outlined in
the following steps:
Step One: Defining the nonprofit and the franchise sectors to identify which
entities within those overall populations this research applies to and those that it does not.
Both segments of the United States (also referred to as “domestic” in this study) economy
are mature and complex (IFA, 2012; Guide Star 2012), thus creating clarity regarding the
appropriate participants is essential for generalization of the findings.
Step Two: Evaluating the internal factors that nonprofit and franchise leadership
must consider when contemplating a relationship. Although there are numerous external
factors, this paper will address three in particular. Firstly, evaluating the requisite skills
and abilities necessary for nonprofit management to successfully identify, acquire and
operate a franchise business. Secondly, evaluating the governance issues nonprofit
leadership must consider when pursuing an unconventional strategy. Lastly, determining
the impact on stakeholders, which in the nonprofit context is more complex and the
potential pejorative results more significant (Jäger, Kreutzer & Beyes, 2009).
Step Three: Considering some of the prominent external factors affecting both
sectors. One mutual external factor is in the area of governance as both sectors have
unique regulatory guidelines, which have not been fully vetted in light of The Social
Franchise relationship (Grunewald, 2008). In addition, there are tax implications for both
parties, but the impact on the nonprofit status is of utmost concern for nonprofit
The Social Franchise 4
leadership (Ebrahim, 2005; Silk, 2007). Another primary consideration for both parties is
the legal framework including consequential effect on the nonprofits tax-exempt status.
While some franchisors sell franchises to individuals, many require a corporate entity to
be formed as the legal structure to own the franchise. While nonprofit corporations have
the right to create subsidiaries, there is an array of questions to be considered in doing so
for purposes of operating a franchise business (Shane & Spell, 1998).
Step Four: Consideration is given to the possible outcomes from a relationship
between a domestic nonprofit organization and a franchise organization. Although not all
the possibilities may have surfaced given the limited number of Social Franchise
engagements historically thus far, this paper will address some of the key outcomes that
have been identified. First, public relations issues are of concern to both participants.
Nonprofit leadership must be vigilant to protect the value of their goodwill, brand equity
and local support (MacDonald, McDonald & Norman, 2002). Similarly, franchisors are
obligated to each franchisee in their system to protect and develop their brand value,
which includes consideration of any potentially disparaging stories emanating from the
nonprofit’s ownership and operation of the franchise (Litalien, 2006; Tracey & Jarvis,
2007). Secondly, the impact on local business relationships is of consequence to
nonprofit management to avoid the appearance of predatory activity.
These four steps are portrayed graphically in the conceptual model provided in
Figure 1, which provide a solid foundation for the evaluation of a Social Franchise
strategy by nonprofit leadership and franchisors.
Context / Background Related to the Problem
While some nonprofit organizations may cling to the Status Quo many have
increasingly engaged in business-like activities to expand support for their mission
The Social Franchise 5
(Mosley & Matviuk, 2010; Dees & Anderson, 2003). However, the results have failed, in
an alarming numb
An Analysis of the Common Reasons for Organizational Change Failures; an Exploration of the Contributing Roles of the Individual, the Leader, and the Environment
No full textDespite the numerous theories, books, studies, and experiments conducted on change management, it is estimated that a significant percentage of all new change initiatives fail, and those that do succeed rarely contribute to organizational effectiveness (Erwin & Garman, 2009). In spite of the volumes of research, there are not consistently understood or agreed upon factors that contribute to the failure of organizational change. Additionally, there are few common definitions, few standardized best practices, and limited empirical studies to support the general assertions. These issues potentially cause significant issues for academics and practitioners in the change management field. To explore this phenomenon, this thesis adopts an evidence based systematic synthesis methodology approach to review the seminal and limited empirical studies on causes of organizational change failure. The paper presents a theoretical framework that proposes that failure of change initiatives are often caused by a lack of alignment between the three broad dimensions the leader, the individual, and the environment. From this theoretical framework, this paper presents a conceptual model that demonstrates how leaders can seek to align these three dimensions within the continually changing and evolving environment, and in doing so potentially increase the success rate of implementing new change initiatives. By understanding the common causes of change failure and the relationship between the leader, the individual, and the environment, organizations can make progress at improving the success rate of new change initiatives and by doing so gain significant competitive advantage. Academics and researchers exploring the areas of change management will benefit by having a lens by which to focus the theoretical aspects of change management to the development of practical applications useful in the organizational environment.Running head: ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 1
An Analysis of the Common Reasons for Organizational Change Failures; an Exploration of the Contributing Roles of the Individual, the Leader, and the Environment
By
John D. Fulcher
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
In Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
Submitted to:
Dr. Eric Dent
Dr. Deborah Wharff
August 13, 2013
ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 2
Abstract
Despite the numerous theories, books, studies, and experiments conducted on change management, it is estimated that a significant percentage of all new change initiatives fail, and those that do succeed rarely contribute to organizational effectiveness (Erwin & Garman, 2009). In spite of the volumes of research, there are not consistently understood or agreed upon factors that contribute to the failure of organizational change. Additionally, there are few common definitions, few standardized best practices, and limited empirical studies to support the general assertions. These issues potentially cause significant issues for academics and practitioners in the change management field. To explore this phenomenon, this thesis adopts an evidence based systematic synthesis methodology approach to review the seminal and limited empirical studies on causes of organizational change failure. The paper presents a theoretical framework that proposes that failure of change initiatives are often caused by a lack of alignment between the three broad dimensions the leader, the individual, and the environment. From this theoretical framework, this paper presents a conceptual model that demonstrates how leaders can seek to align these three dimensions within the continually changing and evolving environment, and in doing so potentially increase the success rate of implementing new change initiatives. By understanding the common causes of change failure and the relationship between the leader, the individual, and the environment, organizations can make progress at improving the success rate of new change initiatives and by doing so gain significant competitive advantage. Academics and researchers exploring the areas of change management will benefit by having a lens by which to focus the theoretical aspects of change management to the development of practical applications useful in the organizational environment.
Keywords: organizational change, trust, resistance, leader-member exchange theory ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 3
Acknowledgements
First, I would like to thank my wife Kerrie and my three sons Tyler, Derek, and Nicholas, without whose patience, support, and understanding this long-term personnel goal of completing a doctoral program would not have been possible.
I would like to acknowledge the University of Maryland University College for having the vision and foresight to develop and implement a program grounded on rigorous academic principles but designed for the working professional. This model of the academic practitioner is, I truly believe, the new and shifting paradigm that is already significantly impacting and benefiting both academia and industry. The professors throughout this program have all been absolutely dedicated and professional and have continually provided the direction to guide me, the fortitude to challenge and drive me, and the support to assist and keep me focused throughout the program.
I will be forever indebted to my friends and fellow students who have accompanied me on this journey. It takes a unique individual who, while already successful in their companies and careers, forgoes professional, personnel, and family commitments to undertake a doctoral program. I am continually awed and amazed by the mentorship, support, ideas, and personal examples these individuals demonstrated on a daily basis.
ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 4
An Analysis of the Common Reasons for Organizational Change Failures; an Exploration of the Contributing Roles of the Individual, the Leader, and the Environment
Table of Contents
I. Title Page……………………...……………..………………………………......... 1 II. Abstract……………………...…….………………………………………………. 2 III. Acknowledgement Page…………………………………………………………... 3 IV. Table of Contents…………………………………..………………..……………. 4 V. List of Tables…………………………………………………………..………….. 7 VI. List of Figures…………………………...………………………………...………. 8 VII. Chapter One: Introduction
a. Introduction……………………………………………………………………... 9 b. Background………………………………………………………………….….. 10
c. Challenges Facing Today’s Leaders ……..…………………………………...... 11
d. Problem Statement……………………………………………………..……..… 18
e. Purpose of Study………………………………………………………………… 19
f. Research Questions………………………………………………..……………. 19 g. Definitions………………………………………………………………………. 20
h. Limitations ………………………………..………………….…………………. 21
i. Propositions …………………………………………………………………….. 22
j. Significance of Study…………………………………………...………………. 22
k. Summary………………………………………………………..………………. 23
l. Dissertation Organization………………………………………………..……… 24 ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 5
VIII. Chapter Two: Literature Review
a. Introduction………………………………..……………………………………. 26
b. Common Theories on Causes of Change Failures…………….………………... 26 c. Individual Factors………………………………………………………………. 26
d. Managerial Factors……………………………………………………………… 44
e. Organizational Factors………………………………………………………….. 61
f. Summary………………………………………………………………………… 75
IX. Chapter Three: Conceptual Framework
a. Introduction…………………………………………………………………...… 77
b. Restatement of the Problem………………………………………………..…… 77
c. Common Themes in the Literature……………………..………………………. 78
d. Conceptualizing the Literature Review…………………………...……………. 81
e. Conceptualizing the Framework……………………........................................... 85
f. Summary………………………………………………………………………... 87
X. Chapter Four: Research Methodology a. Introduction……………………………………………………………………… 89
b. Evidence Based Research……………………………………………………….. 89
c. Systematic Review Process……………………………………………………… 90
d. Dissertation Methodology………………………………………………………. 92
e. Literature Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria…………………………………..... 93
f. Dissertation Approach…………………………………………………………... 94
g. Subject Matter Expert Process………….……………………………………..... 97
h. Subject Matter Expert Feedback………………………………………………... 99 ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 6
h. Summary………………………………………………………………………... 103
XI. Chapter Five: Analysis and Discussions
a. Introduction…………………………………………………………………….. 104
b. Restatement and Exploration of the Research Questions………………………. 105
c. Discussion of the Findings……………………………………………………… 105
d. Conclusions…………………………………………………………………….. 124
e. Alternate Perspectives………………………………………………………….. 128
f. Summary……………………………………………………………………….. 130
XII. Chapter Six: Conclusions
a. Introduction……………………………………………………………………... 131
b. Overall Conclusions…………………………………………………………….. 132
c. Implications for Management…………………………………………………... 135
d. Implications of Trends………………………………………………………….. 139
e. Limitations of the Research……………………………………………………... 144
f. Areas for Future Research………………………………………………………. 145
g. Summary………………………………………………………………………... 147
XIII. References………………………………..……………………………………….. 149
XIV. Appendices
a. Appendix A SME Feedback Professor Marvin Washington…………………… 165
b. Appendix B SME Feedback Professor Stacie Furst Holloway………………… 168
c. Appendix C SME Feedback Mr. John Goodpasture…………………………… 171 ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 7
List of Tables
Table 1. Articles Citing 70% Failure Rates of Change………………...………............... 13
Table 2. Definitions of Resistance to Change ……..…………………………..……….. 15
Table 3. Top 10 Sources of Resistance or Inertia to Change …………………..……….. 27
Table 4. Sources of Resistance, Distinguishing Types of Change……………...………. 28
Table 5. Positive and Negative Ratio of Change Statements……………………………. 32
Table 6. Empirical Studies on Self Managing Work Teams……………..……..………..37
Table 7. Change Management Survey…………………………………………………... 38
Table 8. Resistance From Non-Human Actors………………………………………….. 65
Table 9. Factors Helping in ISO 9000 Implementation…………………....…..………... 69
Table 10. Problems Identified in ISO 9000 Implementation………………..…...……….. 70
Table 11. Common Themes for Organizational Change Failure…………………………. 79
Table 12. Alignment of Research Question with Change Dimensions……………………81
Table 13. Panel of Subject Matter Experts………………………………………………. 99
Table 14. Summary of Feedback from Subject Matter Experts…………………….……. 100
Table 15. Identified Results of Change Resistance………………………………………..107
ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 8
List of Figures
Figure 1. Selected Journal Articles…………………………..……....…..………………. 14
Figure 2. Selected Citation Articles………………………………….…..………………. 14
Figure 3. Wanberg and Banas’ Variables That Affect Openness to Change………….…. 40
Figure 4. Identity Based Process Model of Resistance to Change……………………...... 42
Figure 5. Bruckman’s Organizational Change Impact Model…………………...………. 48
Figure 6. Kotter’s Eight Stage Process of Creating Major Change……………..……….. 50
Figure 7. Stragalas’ Adaptation of the Kotter Model……….…………………………… 51
Figure 8. Szabla’s Framework to Understand Resistance to Change……………………..56
Figure 9. Schwarz’s Typology of Structural Inertia ……………………………………... 64 Figure 10. Theoretical Model for Planned Change………………………………………... 67
Figure 11. Conceptual Framework of the Change Dimensions…………………………… 82
Figure 12. Systematic Synthesis of Research Evidence………………………………… 93
Figure 13. A Graphical Approach of the Research………………………………………... 95
Figure 14. A Conceptual Model of Organizational Change……………………………….. 126
Figure 15. The Effects of Trust and LMX on the Organization…………………………… 138
ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 9
An Analysis of the Common Reasons for Organizational Change Failures; an Exploration of the Contributing Roles of the Individual, the Leader, and the Environment
Chapter One: Introduction
Organizational change has been a topic of academic literature, research, and debate for many years; it has also been a key frustration of leaders charged with implementing new change initiatives within the organization (Kotter, 1995; Mintzberg & Westley, 1992). Despite the extensive research and effort expended thus far at better understanding new change initiatives, there is a substantial amount of general and anecdotal evidence to suggest that a significant percentage of new change initiatives fail and that those that do succeed rarely contribute to organizational effectiveness (Erwin & Garman, 2009). After observing 10 years of organizational changes, Kotter characterized a “few as very successful, a few as failures, and the rest mostly toward the lower end of the scale” (Kotter, 1995, p. 59). In an analysis of 72 empirical evaluations of change programs published in the literature from 1975 to 1988, Porras and Robertson (1992) concluded that 38% showed positive change, 53% showed no change, and 9% showed negative change. Through a global survey of 1,536 executives, who had recently undergone a major change initiative, McKinsey and Company (2008) found that that only 38% of respondents believed that the initiatives were successful and only 30% believed that the change contributed to the sustained improvement of their organizations.
To explore this phenomenon, this research effort adopts an evidence based systematic synthesis methodology to review the seminal and limited empirical studies on the causes of organizational change failure. The paper presents a theoretical framework and argues that failures of change initiatives are caused by the lack of alignment between the three broad dimensions of the leader, the individual, and the environment. From this theoretical framework, this paper presents a conceptual model that demonstrates how leaders can seek to understand and ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 10
align these three dimensions within the continually changing and evolving organizational environment, and in doing so significantly increase the success rate of implementing new change initiatives.
Background
One of the first documented demonstrations of organizational change failure was the Luddite movement, when in 1811 Nottinghamshire’s employees expressed their opposition to new technologies in the organization by destroying the new production tools (Bruckman, 2008). Later in the twentieth century, as industrial organizations were forming and modernizing, implementing organizational change focused primarily on improving upon the physical characteristics of the work or worker (Taylor, 1911). Taylor, an early advocate of organizational change, proposed that by scientifically analyzing the physical characteristics of both the task and of the worker that organizations could maximize productivity and increase profitability. However, Taylor’s scientific management approach focused primarily on the physical characteristics of the task and the individual without focusing on the human and social dimensions of the individual performing the task.
Additional research led researchers to the conclusion that implementation of organizational change required more than solely the narrow approach of the physical characteristics of the work or worker. During experiments conducted at the Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric Company in the 1920s and 1930s, researchers concluded that workers social needs significantly affected productivity. This discovery for the first time recognized the individual as not just a tool, but as a critical and primary factor in the functioning of the organization (Roethlisberger, 1941). ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 11
In further studies, Lewin (1958) proposed that individuals are held in a quasi-stationary equilibrium by opposing forces that are determined by their background, experiences, culture, and social environment. To affect change, leaders must increase the individual force for implementing the change, or decrease the individual force opposing the change. Lewin proposed that since these forces were greater in the group environment than in the individual environment, for changes to remain permanent they must be accomplished through group rather than individual settings. Much has been written about organizational change since Lewin; however, many of those works are based upon and still reference Lewin’s early studies (Mintzberg & Westley, 1992; Orlikowski & Hoffman, 1997; Weick & Quinn, 1999).
Challenges Facing Today’s Change Leaders
The causes of change failures have been exhaustively studied and analyzed. There are extensive writings and research and a multitude of researchers and practitioners who have developed theories as to what causes change initiatives to fail. A search of the term “organizational change” within ABI Inform yields 25,084 results, the same search on Google yields almost 39 million hits. Libraries and bookstores are full of material describing pending change and the best approaches for managing change. However, this vast availability of information on the causes of change failures and the best approaches for managing change seem to have done little to develop successful solutions to improve the chances of success in implementing new change initiatives within the organization. Within the change management literature there are currently few consistent concepts, theories, or definitions, questionable measurements of rates of change failure, and very little empirical data to validate these concepts or presumed theories. ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 12
In an effort to highlight these discrepancies and call for greater research and discussion on change management, Burnes (2011) posed three questions to the academic and practitioner communities:
1. “How reliable is the data on the failure rates of change? Does the data show that some types of changes or organizations are more prone to failure than others?
2. Why does change fail? Is each change failure unique to the specific circumstances in which it is undertaken, or are there common causes of change failures?
3. What can organizations do to improve their success rates? Are some approaches more successful than others? Should organizations undertake more or less change?” (p. 247)
These three questions, Burnes (2011) posited, are interrelated and are key to resolving the issues associated with the consistent failure of new change initiatives within the organization. Without valid and reliable data, organizations will be unable to accurately assess issues with change management, or successfully implement new change initiatives. Without an accurate and complete understanding of the issues associated with change failures, organizations will be unable to implement correct solutions to overcome these challenges. The first question is briefly highlighted below, and Burnes’ second and third questions are the primary topic of this dissertation.
Questionable Measurements of the Rates of Failure
Although a 70% to 90% failure rate of new change initiatives is often repeated in the literature (Dent & Powley, 2003; Erwin & Garman, 2009; Rosenberg & Mosca, 2011), there are very few primary studies and very little evidence or empirical data to support these claims. In an evaluation of 10 selected journal articles (See Table 1) that repeated the claim of at least a 70% ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 13
failure rate of change initiatives, only the Dent and Powley (2003) article offered supporting evidence that included primary studies or empirical data to support their claim. The remaining articles, which were primarily from peer reviewed academic journal articles seemed simply to repeat change failure claims made predominantly from non-academic or non-refereed publications that also offered neither empirical evidence nor data to support the extremely high failure rates (See Figures 1 and 2).
Table 1
Articles Citing a 70% Failure Rate of Change Initiatives and Supporting Citations
Selected Article
Sources Cited
Burke (2011)
Burke and Biggart (1997)
Washington and Hacker (2005)
Beer and Nohria (2000)
Hammer and Champy (1993)
Rosenberg and Mosca (2011)
Maurer (2010)
Erwin and Garman (2009)
Isern and Pung (2007)
Burnes and Jackson (2011)
McKinsey and Company (2008)
Beer and Nohria (2000)
Lucey (2008)
Strebel (1996)
Dent and Powley (2003)
Porras and Robertson (1992)
Young (2009)
Beer and Nohria (2000) Higgs and Rowlands (2005)
Wheatley (2006)
Pellettiere (2006)
Zweig (1995)
Turner, Hallencreutz, and Haley (2009)
Haines, Aller-Stead and McKinlay (2005)
Miller (2002)
Note. Selected articles were found in ABI Inform database using the terms “change”, “failure”, and “70%”.
Hughes (2011) conducted a similar study with comparable results. Focusing on the specific incidence of the stated 70% failure metric repeated in the literature, Hughes, concluded ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 14
that although the statistic was often repeated in peer reviewed scholarly articles, there were no reliable empirical data or evidence to support this claim. Instead, the 70% failure metric that originated primarily from non-academic periodicals or practitioner writings was used repeatedly without any mention of the original source’s lack of methodology, rigor, or factual basis.
Of the selected articles and provided citations, only one of them (Porras & Robertson, 1992), which was cited as evidence by Dent and Powley (2003), even addressed the issue of this extreme high failure rate as a major topic of the research or study. In every other article, the 70% to 90% failure rate was used in the abstract or introduction primarily to emphasize the need for a new approach or new theory on managing change within the organization.
Figure 1. Selected journal articles. Figure 2. Source citation articles.
Locke, Silverman, and Spirduso (2010) discussed the importance of methodological rigor and trust when reviewing research reports. They argued that although it is possible to find good articles in non-refereed publications and poor articles in refereed publications, that it is critical to consider the judgment of others in the
The organizational factors influencing the building of collaborative culture: An examination of the evidence
No full textStudies on collaboration acknowledge the role of culture in building a collaborative organization. These theories rarely look for more than one relationship among the organizational factors and are unidirectional in perspective. This dissertation examines the evidence on building a collaborative culture. The purpose is to identify the organizational factors that influence collaboration in U.S. based corporations. The study looks at the collaborative context intraorganizationally. Several factors influence the building of a collaborative culture. This study analyzes culture, leadership, trust, knowledge management, and structure, using an evidence-based research synthesis approach and the analysis of 27 studies. The relationships between these factors indicate the ability of an organization to build a collaborative culture. The aim is to understand the facilitators of and barriers to collaboration and the organizational factors that allow collaboration to thrive or fail. The results of this study indicate that organizational trust has a more significant influence than is acknowledged in the building of collaborative culture. Finally, salient gaps in the research are identified and implications for future research and practice are discussed.Collaborative Culture
1
ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation: The organizational factors influencing the building of collaborative culture: An examination of the evidence
Kuan H. Collins
Doctor of Management, 2013
University of Maryland University College (UMUC)
Dissertation Directed By: Dr. John Sherlock, Graduate School, UMUC
Dr. Claudine Schweber, Graduate School, UMUC
Studies on collaboration acknowledge the role of culture in building a collaborative organization. These theories rarely look for more than one relationship among the organizational factors and are unidirectional in perspective. This dissertation examines the evidence on building a collaborative culture. The purpose is to identify the organizational factors that influence collaboration in U.S. based corporations. The study looks at the collaborative context intraorganizationally. Several factors influence the building of a collaborative culture. This study analyzes culture, leadership, trust, knowledge management, and structure, using an evidence-based research synthesis approach and the analysis of 27 studies. The relationships between these factors indicate the ability of an organization to build a collaborative culture. The aim is to understand the facilitators of and barriers to collaboration and the organizational factors that allow collaboration to thrive or fail. Collaborative Culture
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The results of this study indicate that organizational trust has a more significant influence than is acknowledged in the building of collaborative culture. Finally, salient gaps in the research are identified and implications for future research and practice are discussed.
Keywords: Collaboration, collaborative culture, organizational structure, leadership, trust, knowledge management
Collaborative Culture
3
THE ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BUILDING OF COLLABORATIVE CULTURE:
AN EXAMINATION OF THE EVIDENCE
By
Kuan H. Collins
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Management
2013
Advisory Committee
Dr. John Sherlock, Chair
Dr. Claudine Schweber
Collaborative Culture
4
DEDICATION
To Chris, Zack, Zeke, Henry and Simin, who supported me in this endeavor and always had faith that I could complete this study. Collaborative Culture
5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This dissertation would not have been completed without the help and support of family, friends, coworkers, cohort members, and members of the faculty of the University of Maryland University College.
To my husband, Chris—a loving leader, for supporting me through this educational adventure. I thank my sons Zack and Zeke who are my balance and make this all worthwhile. I also want to thank my parents who show me their pride all the time.
I want to express my thanks to Dr. John Sherlock and Dr. Claudine Schweber, my dissertation committee chairs, for their coaching, guidance, and unwavering support since I started the DM program in 2009. Thanks to all my professors: Dr. Thomas Mierzwa for introducing me to the Engaged Management Scholarship community, Dr. Clarence Mann for sharing his immense experience, Dr. Thomas Vernon for making statistics fun, and Dr. Eric Dent for starting this journey of learning for me.
I thank the members of my cohort for their friendship and support, in particular, Jeff Zivick and Tony Bell. I could not have completed this journey without their encouragement and support. They are some of the smartest and most accomplished people I have met, and I am honored to know them.
Finally, I thank the University of Maryland University College for this opportunity and for designing a world class Doctor of Management program.
Collaborative Culture
6
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 6
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ 8
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. 8
Chapter 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 9
Background statement ................................................................................................................. 9
Definition of Terms................................................................................................................... 13
Significance of problem ............................................................................................................ 14
Importance to management ....................................................................................................... 14
Purpose ..................................................................................................................................... 16
Organization of Dissertation Chapters ...................................................................................... 16
Chapter 2. Literature Review ....................................................................................................... 18
Collaboration............................................................................................................................ 19
Organizational Culture .............................................................................................................. 28
Leadership ................................................................................................................................ 30
Organizational Trust ................................................................................................................. 31
Organizational Structure ........................................................................................................... 33
Knowledge Management .......................................................................................................... 34
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 35
Research Proposition ................................................................................................................ 35
Chapter 3. Conceptual Framework .............................................................................................. 36
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 36
Conceptual Model ..................................................................................................................... 37 Collaborative Culture
7
Thesis Statement ....................................................................................................................... 39
Chapter 4: Methodology .............................................................................................................. 40
Evidence-based Research Synthesis ......................................................................................... 40
Systematic Review Process....................................................................................................... 41
Set-Up: Search Strategy ........................................................................................................... 45
Analysis: Abstract reviews and inclusion/exclusion criteria ................................................... 46
Concept Integration: Article Reviews and Analytic Procedure ............................................... 49
Subject Matter Experts .............................................................................................................. 51
Chapter 5: Findings ....................................................................................................................... 52
Findings Summary .................................................................................................................... 52
Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 53
Limitations ............................................................................................................................... 62
Summary of Findings ................................................................................................................ 63
Chapter 6: Conclusions and Implications ..................................................................................... 65
Significance of the study and findings ...................................................................................... 65
Practical implications for management ..................................................................................... 67
Future trends and future research .............................................................................................. 69
Summary .................................................................................................................................. 74
Appendix A. Data Tables ............................................................................................................. 76
References .................................................................................................................................... 82
Collaborative Culture
8
List of Figures
Figure 1. A Conceptual Framework for research concerning collaborative culture building in U.S. based corporations (adapted from Kelley & Littman, 2005) ............................... 37
Figure 2. Systematic Review Process (adapted from Rashman et al, 2009)................................ 44
Figure 3. Significance of Findings ............................................................................................... 67
Figure 4. Tag Cloud of sub-themes found in studies ................................................................... 78
List of Tables
Table 1. Keywords Searches and Electronic Resources Used in the Study ................................ 46
Table 2. Systematic Review Template......................................................................................... 49
Table 3. Inclusion and Exclusion criteria .................................................................................... 49
Table 4. Quality Assessment Criteria .......................................................................................... 50
Table 5. Journals reviewed .......................................................................................................... 76
Table 6. Studies reviewed by theme ............................................................................................ 77
Table 7. Frequency vote count of subfactors ............................................................................... 78
Table 8. Count of facilitators and inhibitors of collaboration by theme ...................................... 79
Table 9. Studies reviewed by facilitating and inhibiting factors/theme (n=27) ........................... 79
Collaborative Culture
9
Chapter 1. Introduction
Background statement
None of us is as smart as all of us. – Japanese proverb (Newman, 2009)
Collaboration and its benefits to an organization are not new concepts. Additionally, it has been recognized by experts on collaboration that the group interaction associated with collaboration is inherently linked to the context, structure, and process employed in an organization (Ricci & Wiese, 2011). This concept of working together toward a common, shared goal can be found as early as the ancient Egyptians circa 4000 BC. Collaboration and organizational capacity for collaboration has become increasingly important in organizations’ performance and their ability to create and be innovative (Ricci & Wiese, 2011; Kelley & Littman, 2001; Kelley & Littman, 2005). Scholars and practitioners recognize the importance of leveraging the diversity of thought within an organization to create and implement new ideas. In the current economy of constrained resources, organizations recognize the need to do more with less and the need to leverage limited resources for the greatest results (Kelley & Littman, 2005). Companies, such as IDEO, that have been successful at creating collaborative and innovative cultures, recognize that high performing organizations and invention are not derived by the mythical “lone genius” but that collaborative culture is borne from the high quality collaboration of many parts of an organization and external organizations (Kelley & Littman, 2005; Kelley & Littman, 2001). The increasing complexity of products, services, and experiences demands the reality of the enthusiastic interdisciplinary collaborator. IDEO’s diverse and multidisciplinary staff is comprised of engineers, marketers, anthropologists, industrial designers, architects, and psychologists – all with significant experience in more than one domain, working side by side to develop products (Kelley & Littman, 2005; Kelley & Littman, 2001). Competitive advantage Collaborative Culture
10
depends on this ability to collaborate and work together effectively and efficiently. As task complexity increases in many industries, the organizational factors such as quality of the social network impacts the success of the collaboration and the type of organizational structure impacts the building of a collaborative culture. This research examines organizational factors that influence the building of collaborative culture, such as culture, leadership, trust, structure, and knowledge management. Several organizations that attempt to build a more collaborative culture tend to conceptualize the collaborative culture in limited and linear ways (Ricci & Wiese, 2011). Technology is often implemented with the intent to stimulate collaborative behavior without examination of organization structure, process, and culture to support the behavior (Ricci & Wiese, 2011). Lack of collaborative behavior has subsequently been blamed on the technology and not on the organizational factors needed to support the building of a collaborative culture.
Collaborative practices in this study are examined at all levels of the corporation: vision, mission, business, organizational, interrelationships between levels of the organizational structure. Failure to collaborate effectively at any of these levels (either laterally, vertically, or any direction) can impede the collaborative culture of the organization (Beyerlein et al, 2003). Collaboration has become a success factor that applies to all internal and external relationships that create a business. This includes relationships with customers, business allies, suppliers, divisions, departments, functions, projects, specialties, vertical levels, and employees. Collaboration can be defined simply as working together (Beyerlein et al, 2003). Effective collaboration means working together efficiently and effectively towards higher organizational performance such as improved products, processes, and services (Beyerlein et al, 2003; Harris, 2005). It is increasingly difficult to collaborate in today’s organizations due to the task complexity and uncertainty, nature of the work environment, and the speed requirement created Collaborative Culture
11
by unpredictable change (Beyerlein et al, 2003). Today’s economy is characterized by the need to collaborate (Child, 2001) and therefore there is a need to understand the organizational factors that influence the building of a collaborative culture.
The literature explicitly on collaboration is fairly recent. There is however seminal literature that describes what this research is referring to as “collaboration” and “collaborative culture.” For example, the literature on organizational learning describes a culture that facilitates the transfer of knowledge and the creation of new knowledge and the production of innovative solutions (Senge, 2006). This transfer of knowledge is an organizational factor that leads to the building of a collaborative culture. Firms that have successfully built this culture learn from and with their “collaborators,” and new technologies push towards collaboration and open innovation (Greer & Lei, 2012). Knowing, learning, and creating are critical requirements for any organization to make smart and innovative decisions and to effectively follow through on those decisions (Ricci & Wiese, 2011; Kelley & Littman, 2005; Kelley & Littman, 2001). Therefore, another organizational factor that influences the building of a collaborative culture is its ability to learn organizationally. Senge (2006) states that teams, sometimes a corporation’s vehicle for collaboration, “are becoming the key learning unit in organizations (p. 219).” Teams are not necessarily an organizational structure requirement for organizations to build a collaborative culture, as demonstrated by companies like Southwest Airlines or W. L. Gore, however, collaboration tends to occur with more frequency within a team (Beyerlein et al, 2003). Hansen (2009) explains that there is a cost associated with building a collaborative culture and that this effort to building a collaborative culture can result in “bad” collaboration that does not lead to improved organizational performance. Hansen (2009) further identifies knowledge management as an organizational factor that influences the building of a collaborative culture. As the Collaborative Culture
12
literature on collaboration is recent, the terminology used to describe the collaborative culture has been diverse. Terms such as coordination, cooperation, and collaboration in the literature are not consistently defined (Beyerlein et al, 2006), further supporting the need to conceptualize collaboration. Studies on coordination and cooperation inform this study in terms of identifying the organizational factors that influence building a collaborative culture. Organizational leaders may recognize the benefits of a collaborative culture to organizational performance; they may not necessarily fully understand the organizational factors that influence the building of a collaborative culture.
Since the early 1990s management literature has discussed “collaborative culture” indirectly through the discussion of bringing together a multitude of skills and experiences in a team, work group, strategic alliance, or community of practice and the notion that can they out perform any individual. This mix of human capital was argued to be able to more successfully manage the complexity of organizational challenges such as innovation, quality, and customer service (Katzenbach & Smith, 1993). Though not a new concept, organizations have rarely developed this collaborative competency in any deliberate or systematic way (Beyerlein et al, 2005). While this study is focused on intraorganizational collaboration, the challenges of building a collaborative culture are informed by the research on strategic alliances as the goal with alliances is to build a collaborative culture – a culture of working together toward a common goal. The research on alliances demonstrates that while alliances increase steadily every year, 60% fail (Kelly et al, 2002; Hughes & Weiss, 2007). Beyerlein et al (2005) further discuss that while collaboration is a recognized cornerstone of any viable organization, limited methodologies exist for capturing the value of collaboration, which has prevented organizations from capturing collaboration as a core competency. Despite the assumption that collaboration is beneficial to Collaborative Culture
13
company performance, measurable collaboration benefits are necessary (Camarinha-Matos & Abreu, 2007) as there is a cost associated with building collaborative organizational culture. This study evaluates 27 studies related to the topic of building collaborative culture with a purpose to identify the organizational factors that influence the building of a collaborative culture in U.S. based corporations.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, terms frequently used within this study are defined as follows:
Collaboration. Working together toward a common goal (Sullivan, 1998, p. xiii). “A cooperative relationship that relies on neither market nor hierarchical mechanisms of control (Beyerlein et al, 2005, p. 5).
Collaborative Culture. Shared values, beliefs,
A Behavioral Framework for Managing Massive Airline Flight Disruptions through Crisis Management, Organization Development, and Organization Learning
No full textIn this study the researcher provides a behavioral framework for managing massive airline flight disruptions (MAFD) in the United States. Under conditions of MAFD, multiple flights are disrupted throughout the airline’s route network, customer service is negatively affected, additional costs are created for airlines, and governments intervene. This study is different from other studies relating to MAFD that have focused on the operational, technical, economic, financial, and customer service impacts. The researcher argues that airlines could improve the management of events that led to MAFD by applying the principles of crisis management where the entire organization is mobilized, rather than one department, adapting organization development (OD) interventions to implement change and organization learning (OL) processes to create culture of innovation, resulting in sustainable improvement in customer service, cost reductions, and mitigation of government intervention. At the intersection of crisis management, OD, and OL, the researcher has developed a new conceptual framework that enhances the resiliency of individuals and organizations in responding to unexpected-yet-recurring crises (e.g., MAFD) that impact operations. The researcher has adapted and augmented Lalonde’s framework for managing crises through OD interventions by including OL processes. The OD interventions, coupled with OL, provide a framework for airline leaders to manage more effectively events that result in MAFD with the goal of improving passenger satisfaction, reducing costs, and preventing further government intervention. Further research is warranted to apply this conceptual framework to unexpected-yet-recurring crises that affect operations in other industries.A Behavioral Framework for Managing Massive Airline Flight Disruptions through Crisis Management, Organization Development,
and Organization Learning
Tulinda Deegan Larsen
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
In Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree of
Doctorate of Management
Dissertation Committee:
Dr. Michael A. Evanchik
Dr. Dennis Winters
March 2013Behavioral Approach to Massive Airline Flight Disruptions
ii
Abstract
In this study the researcher provides a behavioral framework for managing massive airline flight disruptions (MAFD) in the United States. Under conditions of MAFD, multiple flights are disrupted throughout the airline’s route network, customer service is negatively affected, additional costs are created for airlines, and governments intervene. This study is different from other studies relating to MAFD that have focused on the operational, technical, economic, financial, and customer service impacts. The researcher argues that airlines could improve the management of events that led to MAFD by applying the principles of crisis management where the entire organization is mobilized, rather than one department, adapting organization development (OD) interventions to implement change and organization learning (OL) processes to create culture of innovation, resulting in sustainable improvement in customer service, cost reductions, and mitigation of government intervention. At the intersection of crisis management, OD, and OL, the researcher has developed a new conceptual framework that enhances the resiliency of individuals and organizations in responding to unexpected-yet-recurring crises (e.g., MAFD) that impact operations. The researcher has adapted and augmented Lalonde’s framework for managing crises through OD interventions by including OL processes. The OD interventions, coupled with OL, provide a framework for airline leaders to manage more effectively events that result in MAFD with the goal of improving passenger satisfaction, reducing costs, and preventing further government intervention. Further research is warranted to apply this conceptual framework to unexpected-yet-recurring crises that affect operations in other industries.
Keywords: flight disruptions, airline operations, irregular operations, airline delays, crisis management, organization development, organization learning, resiliencyBehavioral Approach to Massive Airline Flight Disruptions
iii
Dedication
For my father, George Arthur Deegan, who taught me that I have no limits, and for my mother, Janice Shaddock Deegan, who encourages me to pursue my dreams.Behavioral Approach to Massive Airline Flight Disruptions
iv
Acknowledgments
My accomplishments in the Doctorate of Management program would not have been possible without the unconditional support of my husband, Carl B. Larsen. I would like to thank my cohort for the camaraderie to overcome the challenges of the program and advisors, Professor Michael A. Evanchik and Professor Dennis Winters, for their invaluable advice and encouragement. I deeply appreciate the contributions provided by my Expert Review Panel, Dr. Carole Lalonde, Dr. Susan Blount, Dr. Darryl Jenkins, Mr. Tim Antolovic, Mr. Jack Kies, and Mr. Stephen Smith. I also thank Alaska Airlines, American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, United Airlines, US Airways, and JetBlue Airways for allowing me to tour their operations centers and discuss the constructs presented in this study with managers who have direct experience with managing events that lead to massive airline flight disruptions. Finally, I thank my editors, Janice Deegan, Susan Pitts Dykstra, Cynthia Maimone, and Phyllis Radlinski.Behavioral Approach to Massive Airline Flight Disruptions
v
Table of Contents
Abstract.............................................................................................................................. ii
Dedication......................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................x
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... xi
List of Acronyms .............................................................................................................. xii
Chapter 1: Introduction........................................................................................................1
Definition of Terms..................................................................................................4
Statement of Purpose ...............................................................................................7
Air Space Management............................................................................................9
Airline Management of Aircraft Accidents ...........................................................10
Relevance of Behavioral Management Approach to Management of Massive Flight Disruptions ......................................................................................13
Assumptions and Defining the Problem................................................................21
Airline Management of Massive Flight Disruptions .............................................29
Research Questions................................................................................................37
Research Methodology ..........................................................................................37
Summary of Findings.............................................................................................38
Summary of Conceptual Framework.....................................................................39
Chapter 2: Literature Review.............................................................................................40
Introduction............................................................................................................40
Crisis Management ................................................................................................41
Defining Crisis and Crisis Management ....................................................42Behavioral Approach to Massive Airline Flight Disruptions
vi
Crisis Management Tools ..........................................................................42
Crisis Management Teams.........................................................................47
Crisis Management Strategic Decision Making ........................................48
Organization Development ....................................................................................51
Defining Organizational Development ......................................................51
Sociotechnical System Change ..................................................................52
Interventions ..............................................................................................52
Organizational Learning ........................................................................................53
Definition of Organizational Learning.......................................................54
Elements of Organizational Learning ........................................................55
Organizational Learning and Resiliency....................................................58
Teaching Organizational Learning through Public Policy.........................59
Airline Operations..................................................................................................60
The Federal Government ...........................................................................61
Industry ......................................................................................................68
Foundational Theoretical Framework....................................................................71
Summary of Literature Review..............................................................................74
Link to Conceptual Framework .............................................................................75
Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework: Behavioral Approach to Crisis Management Through Organization Development and Organization Learning........................................77
Lalonde’s Conceptual Framework.........................................................................77
Conceptual Framework With Organizational Learning.........................................80
Conceptual Framework Applied to Airline Management of Massive Flight Disruptions.................................................................................................81Behavioral Approach to Massive Airline Flight Disruptions
vii
Underlying Assumptions .......................................................................................82
Planning .....................................................................................................84
Coordination of the Techno-Structure .......................................................86
Crisis Leadership .......................................................................................91
Civil Society...............................................................................................93
Adaptation of Organizational Learning Concepts .................................................96
Propositions Applied to the Conceptual Framework.............................................98
Summary..............................................................................................................101
Chapter 4: Research Methods ..........................................................................................102
Research Methods Used.......................................................................................103
Evidence-Based Research and the Systematic Review .......................................104
Identification of Criteria, Inclusion, and Exclusion.............................................106
Crisis management, organizational development, organizational learning108
Foundational Management Theories........................................................109
Airline Operations....................................................................................109
Hospital Management of Crises Affecting Operations............................110
Assessment of the Literature................................................................................111
The Expert Review Panel.....................................................................................114
Dissertation review process .....................................................................115
University of Maryland University College Doctor of Management Internal Review............................................................................115
The External Review................................................................................116
Selection of Experts .................................................................................118
Expert Review Panel Qualifications ....................................................................119Behavioral Approach to Massive Airline Flight Disruptions
viii
Expert 1: Ph.D. in Crisis Management and Organizational Development119
Expert 2: Ph.D. in Crisis Management and Organizational Learning .....120
Expert 3: Ph.D. in Airline Operations......................................................120
Expert 4: Practitioner Expert With Airline Experience ...........................121
Expert 5: Governmental Expert with the Federal Aviation Administration121
Expert 6: Governmental Expert with the Office of the Inspector General122
Discussions with Other Experts...........................................................................122
Summary of Research Methods ...........................................................................123
Chapter 5: Findings..........................................................................................................124
Systematic Review Process, Exclusion, and Inclusion........................................124
Crisis Management ..............................................................................................124
Organizational Development ...................................................................129
Organizational Learning ..........................................................................131
Airline operations.....................................................................................133
Hospital Management ..........................................................................................135
Findings from Evidence Based Research ............................................................137
Findings From the Expert Review Panel .............................................................138
Expert Review Panel Responses..........................................................................139
Responses to Expert Review Panel Question 1 .......................................141
Responses to Expert Review Panel Question 2 .......................................142
Responses to Expert Review Panel Question 3 .......................................144
Responses to Expert Review Panel Question 4 .......................................145
Responses to Expert Review Panel Question 5 .......................................146
Responses to Expert Review Panel Question 6 .......................................147Behavioral Approach to Massive Airline Flight Disruptions
ix
Discussion............................................................................................................148
Analysis of Findings ............................................................................................149
Limitations of the Study.......................................................................................150
Answers to Research Questions...........................................................................152
Chapter 6: Implications, Trends, Future Research, and Conclusions ..............................154
Implications for Management Theory .................................................................154
Implications for Management Practice ................................................................157
Trends in Theory and Practice .............................................................................159
Theory Trends..........................................................................................159
Practice Trends.........................................................................................162
Implications for Management Research ..............................................................165
Conclusions..........................................................................................................167
References.......................................................................................................................170Behavioral Approach to Massive Airline Flight Disruptions
x
List of Tables
1 Definitions of Massive Airline Flight Disruptions or Irregular Operations ............4
2 Airline Disrupted Operations of 2012 Versus Those in the First Quarters of 2009, 2010, and 2011.............................................................................................15
3 Examples of Massive Airline Flight Disruptions...................................................17
4 Quality Assessment Criteria ................................................................................111
5 Examples of Quality Assessment.........................................................................113
6 The Expert Review Panel.....................................................................................119
7 Crisis Management Systematic Review Results..................................................125
8 Key Crisis Management Research.......................................................................126
9 Key Articles Organizational Development..........................................................130
10 Key Articles Organizational Learning.................................................................131
11 Governmental Studies Related to Airline Operations..........................................133
12 Research Related to Hospital Operations ............................................................136
13 Summary of Expert Review Panel Answers........................................................139
14 Operations Disruption Planning for Hospitals Versus Airlines...........................158Behavioral Approach to Massive Airline Flight Disruptions
xi
List of Figures
1 Aircraft at Detroit Airport, 1999............................................................................14
2 Disrupted Flight Operations as Percent of Planned Flights...................................15
3 Seasonality of Flight Delays (Percent American Flights Delayed by Month).......25
4 Organizational Structure for Airline Management of Operations. ........................27
5 Operation Center of Day of Airline Operations.....................................................29
6 Normal Day of Operations.....................................................................................30
7 Operations Under Massive Flight Disruptions. .....................................................32
8 Impact of Flight Disruptions..................................................................................34
9 Literature Review Subject Areas. ..........................................................................40
10 Lalonde’s Conceptual Model of Crisis Management and Organization Development Interventions....................................................................................78
11 Organizational Learning and Crisis Management Principles. .................................1
12 Lalonde Framework Is Applied to Airline Management of Massive Flight Disruptions.............................................................................................................83
13 Intelligence From Other Departments. ..................................................................87
14 Behavioral Framework for Airline Management of Massive Flight Disruptions. Propositions Are Noted In Boxes as P1–P6. .....................................99
15 Research Methods................................................................................................104
16 Categories of Crisis Article Focus. ......................................................................128
17 Cross-Fertilization of Concepts. ..........................................................................155
18 Alliance On Time Performance Comparison.......................................................165Behavioral Approach to Massive Airline Flight Disruptions
xii
List of Acronyms
AGIFORS Airline Group of the International Federation of Operational Research Societies
ANPRM Advanced Notice of Proposed Rule Making
ATC air traffic control
ATFM air traffic flow management
ATM air traffic management
CRM crew resource management or cockpit resource management
CRS computer reservation system
DOT U.S. Department of Transportation
DFW Dallas-Ft. Worth Airport
ERPQ expert review panel questions
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
GDP ground delay program
GSP ground stop program
HRO high-reliability organization
IOC integrated operation center
IROPS irregular operations
JFK John F. Kennedy Airport
KLM KLM Royal Dutch Airlines
LCC low-cost carrier
MAFD massive airline flight disruptions
MOCC maintenance operations control center
NAS National Airspace System
NEXTOR National Center of Excellence for Aviation Operations Research
NOC network operations center
NOCC network operations control center
NPRM Notice of Proposed Rule Making
OCC operations control center
OD organizational development
OIG U.S. Office of the Insp
Improving DoD Acquisitions Through Performance-Based Contracting
No full textThe Department of Defense (DoD) approach to contracting for the acquisition of
simulation training devices has heretofore focused on creating a virtual copy of the tactical
operating environment in an effort to train in a replicated atmosphere. This method has largely
ignored an acquisition methodology where objective based learning techniques become the
requirements for virtual training devices and not simply a virtual replication of the tactical
environment. The DoD acquisition policy can improve its results by adapting a Performance-
Based Contracting (PBC) approach so that military trainees are receiving and working towards
actual training goals and not just working within a rehash of an existing tactical environment.
This dissertation explores the value of acquiring DoD training systems based on meeting
performance requirement. The thesis reasoned that training objectives as the basis of an
acquisition and less on a ‘design to specification’ approach, improves the value of the training.
Further, it is argued that suppliers will respond with creative and innovative solutions that will
improve learning, reduce costs, mitigate performance risks, and advance cutting edge
technologies. The existing literature and multitude of studies suggested that PBC is an effective
tool to achieve superior acquisition performance. A conceptual framework is presented
demonstrating an acquisition approach shift from specification driven to performance driven.
The findings of this dissertation concluded that measuring training efficacy as an outcome is
more effective than building a system that is stringently specified as a replica of a tactical
military device.Running Head: DOD PERFORMANCE-BASED CONTRACTING 1
Improving DoD Acquisitions Through Performance-Based Contracting
By
Bill Rebarick
Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the
University of Maryland University College, in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Management
Submitted to:
Dr. Eric Dent and Dr. G. David Andersen
Summer, 2013
DOD PERFORMANCE-BASED CONTRACTING 2
ABSTRACT
The Department of Defense (DoD) approach to contracting for the acquisition of
simulation training devices has heretofore focused on creating a virtual copy of the tactical
operating environment in an effort to train in a replicated atmosphere. This method has largely
ignored an acquisition methodology where objective based learning techniques become the
requirements for virtual training devices and not simply a virtual replication of the tactical
environment. The DoD acquisition policy can improve its results by adapting a Performance-
Based Contracting (PBC) approach so that military trainees are receiving and working towards
actual training goals and not just working within a rehash of an existing tactical environment.
This dissertation explores the value of acquiring DoD training systems based on meeting
performance requirement. The thesis reasoned that training objectives as the basis of an
acquisition and less on a ‘design to specification’ approach, improves the value of the training.
Further, it is argued that suppliers will respond with creative and innovative solutions that will
improve learning, reduce costs, mitigate performance risks, and advance cutting edge
technologies. The existing literature and multitude of studies suggested that PBC is an effective
tool to achieve superior acquisition performance. A conceptual framework is presented
demonstrating an acquisition approach shift from specification driven to performance driven.
The findings of this dissertation concluded that measuring training efficacy as an outcome is
more effective than building a system that is stringently specified as a replica of a tactical
military device.
Keywords: Government, Contracting, Military, Warfighter, Defense, Virtual Training,
Performance-Based Contracting, Performance Measurement, Collaboration Theory.
DOD PERFORMANCE-BASED CONTRACTING 3
© Copyright by
William P. Rebarick
2013
DOD PERFORMANCE-BASED CONTRACTING 4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
While my name appears as the author of this dissertation, a great number of people have
contributed to its development and ultimate production. I am grateful to everyone that has made
this dissertation possible.
My deepest appreciation begins with my advisors, Dr. Eric Dent and Dr. David
Andersen. I have been extremely fortunate to have two of the best advisors that gave me the
latitude to explore on my own, the guidance to conform to standards, and the ability to recover
when I was moving down the wrong path. Dr. Andersen in particular has provided significant
advice and leadership through this project. His background at the Government Accountability
Office (GAO) and his passion for this dissertation subject has been especially encouraging.
I would like to acknowledge my fellow cohort members who have also endured several
years of deadlines and advice exchanges that made this experience enriching. The relationships
developed here have matured into strong friendship. I have discovered a deep level of respect
for all my cohorts, including Jeff Hillard, Ed Jenkins, Mark DeJong, and Acie Forrer.
Further, I would like to thank Dr. Ketchen, Dr. Giunipero, and Dr. Patton for taking the
time to provide both a scholastic and practitioner’s view of the value of this research. In
particular I would like to recognize Dr. Ketchen as one of the best teachers that I have had in my
life. He sets the standards for academic integrity and thought. He guided me into the Doctoral
program and provided professional encouragement throughout the process.
Finally, thank you to my friends, family, and co-workers for their patience through this
process. This would not have been possible without the love and patience of my immediate and
extended family.
DoD PERFORMANCE-BASED CONTRACTING 5
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................................. 9
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 9
Introduction and Background ......................................................................................................... 9
PBC in Commercial Industries ................................................................................................. 10
Developing PBC Requirements: The Requirements Manager. ............................................ 10
Developing PBC Requirements: The Specification. ............................................................. 11
Using Performance-Based Objectives to Establish PBC .......................................................... 13
Using PBC as the Right Tool .................................................................................................... 13
Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................................... 14
Statement and Significance of the Problem .................................................................................. 16
Current Acquisition Practices for Military training systems .................................................... 16
Managing a Change to PBC for Military Training Products .................................................... 18
Importance to Management .......................................................................................................... 19
Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 21
Definition of Major Terms ............................................................................................................ 22
Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 23
Organization of Dissertation ......................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................ 25
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 25
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 25
History of Performance-Based Contracting (PBC) .................................................................. 26
Historical Background of Contracting Accountability in the Defense Industry ....................... 26
PBC Requirements Development – a Historical Baseline ........................................................ 28
Issues in the Phases/Life Cycle of Performance-Based Contracting ........................................ 29
Modeling Approaches: Theoretical Framework ........................................................................... 30
Framework Foundation One: Management by Objective (MBO) ............................................ 31
Framework Foundation Two: Total Quality Management (TQM) .......................................... 31
Framework Foundation Three: The Performance Management Movement ............................ 32
Hazards to Using the Wrong Contracting Vehicle: The Gaps in Modeling Literature ................ 33
Gaps in Performance-Based Cost-Sharing Models .................................................................. 34
Research Gap: Implications to the Way Warfighters are Trained in Simulators .......................... 34
Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 39
CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................ 41
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................................. 41
Introduction to the Conceptual Framework .................................................................................. 41
DoD PERFORMANCE-BASED CONTRACTING 6
Restatement of the Problem ...................................................................................................... 41
The Message in the Literature Review: The Potential for Change to PBC .............................. 42
Supporting Themes for Change in the Literature Review ........................................................ 43
Scholarly Areas of Research in the Literature Review ............................................................. 44
The Conceptual Framework .......................................................................................................... 45
Theoretical Paradigms: The Foundational Theory Enablers ........................................................ 50
Theory One: Transaction Cost Economics (TCE) Theory ....................................................... 51
Theory Two: Public Management Theory ................................................................................ 53
Theory Three: Systems Theory ................................................................................................. 54
Theory Four: The Principal/Agency Theory ............................................................................ 56
Theory Five: Competency Theory ............................................................................................ 59
Theory Six: Collaboration Theory ............................................................................................ 61
Evidence Found in PBC Theories, Studies and Literature ........................................................... 63
Applying Theory to PBC within the DoD: Determining “Performance” ..................................... 65
PBC Evidence within the DoD ................................................................................................. 65
PBC Oversight Requirements and Accountability. .............................................................. 66
Cost Impacts and Performance Measurement. ...................................................................... 68
PBC Risk and Mitigation. ..................................................................................................... 70
The Conceptual Framework: What the Evidence Based Research (EBR) Says ........................... 72
Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 73
CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................................ 74
METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 74
Introduction to Methodology ........................................................................................................ 74
Discussion of Evidence Based Research and Methodology ......................................................... 75
Theory and Practice of Evidence Based Research .................................................................... 76
Differing Models in EBR: Quantitative v. Qualitative ................................................................. 76
Applying the Research to DoD Acquisitions ................................................................................ 77
EBR in Depth: The Literature Review .......................................................................................... 78
Discussion of Scholarly Research Evidence Tools ....................................................................... 79
Literature Review Methodology and Process ............................................................................... 80
Presentation and Discussion of Expert Panel................................................................................ 82
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 82
Panel Members .............................................................................................................................. 83
Subject Matter Experts Background ......................................................................................... 83
Panel Member’s Comments and Recommendations .................................................................... 86
Panel Member Contributions and Impact ..................................................................................... 90
Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 91
CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................................................ 92
DoD PERFORMANCE-BASED CONTRACTING 7
ANALYSIS and DISCUSSION ................................................................................................... 92
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 92
Presentation of Research Questions and Findings and Conclusions ............................................ 93
Framework Stage One: Input .................................................................................................... 94
Performance-Based Contracting Requirements Input........................................................... 94
Performance-Based Requirements for Virtual Military Training – A Case Study. .............. 94
Framework Stage Two: Process ............................................................................................... 97
Performance-Based Contracting Process Requirements – A Case Study. ............................ 97
Performance-Based Contracting Process Management Theories. ........................................ 97
Framework Stage Three: Output ............................................................................................... 98
Performance-Based Contracting Output. .............................................................................. 98
Presentation of Research Questions, Findings, and Conclusions ............................................... 100
Research Question 1 ............................................................................................................... 101
Research Question 2 ............................................................................................................... 102
Research Question 3 ............................................................................................................... 104
Research Question 4 ............................................................................................................... 106
Summary .................................................................................................................................... 109
CHAPTER 6 ............................................................................................................................... 110
OVERALL CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE
STUDY ...................................................................................................................................... 110
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 110
Overall Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 111
Measurements of Quality Will Improve Performance ............................................................ 111
PBC Can Manage Risk ........................................................................................................... 112
Implications for Management ..................................................................................................... 112
Implications of Trends ................................................................................................................ 115
Military Virtual Training Devices Requirements Planning .................................................... 115
Performance-Based Contracting - Measurement of Performance .......................................... 117
Improvement of Training Efficacy through Performance-Based Contracting ....................... 118
Limitations ................................................................................................................................. 119
Areas for Future Research .......................................................................................................... 120
Summary .................................................................................................................................... 121
Appendix A - Sample Solicitation of Subject Matter Expert Panel Member ......................... 123
Appendix B - Subject Matter Expert Evaluation & Feedback Form ...................................... 142
DoD PERFORMANCE-BASED CONTRACTING 8
List of Figures
Figure 1. Acquisition Management for the DoD Framework. .................................................... 28
Figure 2. Performance Focused Contracting Model. ................................................................... 36
Figure 3. Federal Acquisition Regulations (FAR) Definition of PBC. ....................................... 38
Figure 4. Improved use of PBC Virtual Training Systems. ........................................................ 47
Figure 5. Conceptual Framework for PBC Acquisitions............................................................. 50
Figure 6. Collaboration Between Government and Defense Contractors Providing Optimal
Military Training. .......................................................................................................................... 63
Figure 7. Risk Impacts to the DoD and Contractor in Context to Objective Types. ................... 99
List of Tables
Table 1 27
Major Acquisition Reformation Policies ...................................................................................... 27
Table 2 64
Theoretical Management Concepts and Research Questions ....................................................... 64
Table 3 84
Panel of Expert Practitioner Panel ................................................................................................ 84
Table 3 86
Subject Matter Expert Panel Recommendations ........................................................................... 86
DoD PERFORMANCE-BASED CONTRACTING 9
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Introduction and Background
The field of Performance-Based Contracting (acquiring goods and services through
performance requirements) is a significant topic in the defense community. Throughout the
history of defense contracting the use of defined specification requirements-based acquisition has
been the standard. However, the United States (U.S.) White House’s Office of Management and
Budget (OMB) have embraced a new standard of contracting called Performance-Based
Contracting (Office of Federal Procurement Policy, 1998). The United States Government
Accountability Office (GAO) enforced the policy change by studying the effects in a report on
Performance Based Contracting (PBC). The repo
Managing generational workplace conflict: Exploring Morton Deutsch’s theory of cooperation and competition for impactful alternatives to conflict resolution
No full textGenerational diversity is a reality of today’s workforce. Unique historical events, age
location, and social experiences of four generations of employees in the workforce today has
influenced differences in values, attitudes, life experiences and beliefs. Workplace conflicts
between Traditionalist, Baby Boomers, Generation X and Generation Y exist when these
differences in values, attitudes, life experiences and beliefs are not understood or managed.
Failure to address, what Morton Deutsch called “destructive conflict,” can lead
organizations to have “increased turnover, loss of productivity, derailed careers, higher payroll
and training costs, poor customer service and stress-related reactions” (Sedrak and Cahill, 2011,
p. 34). The persuasiveness and intensity of destructive conflict can destroy an organization from
within. Generations are competing for resources that make the need for constructive conflict
resolutions an imperative today in a complex global work environment.
Managers who can effectively manage generational personalities and generational
conflict can create an environment conducive to each generation’s unique strengths. Such
intentional efforts should increase the chances of organizational success. While much has been
written about generational traits and characteristics, not much scholarly information is
specifically available regarding generational conflict. This dissertation explores the topic by
examining generational differences and the nature of conflict that typify those differences.
As leaders identify strengths and weaknesses of each generation, managers are better able
to understand each generation. As an understanding is gained, the leader can create an
environment conducive to each generation’s unique strengths; leaders can reap the benefits and
increase the chances of successful completion of projects and organizational success.Running Head: MANAGING GENERATIONAL WORKPLACE CONFLICT
Managing Generational Workplace Conflict: Exploring Morton Deutsch’s Theory of
Cooperation and Competition for Impactful Alternatives to Conflict Resolution
Priscilla Ann Lewis
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
Of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
Of
Doctor of Management
Doctoral Committee:
Professor Winters
Professor Hadary
MANAGING GENERATIONAL WORKPLACE CONFLICT 1
ABSTRACT
Generational diversity is a reality of today’s workforce. Unique historical events, age
location, and social experiences of four generations of employees in the workforce today has
influenced differences in values, attitudes, life experiences and beliefs. Workplace conflicts
between Traditionalist, Baby Boomers, Generation X and Generation Y exist when these
differences in values, attitudes, life experiences and beliefs are not understood or managed.
Failure to address, what Morton Deutsch called “destructive conflict,” can lead
organizations to have “increased turnover, loss of productivity, derailed careers, higher payroll
and training costs, poor customer service and stress-related reactions” (Sedrak and Cahill, 2011,
p. 34). The persuasiveness and intensity of destructive conflict can destroy an organization from
within. Generations are competing for resources that make the need for constructive conflict
resolutions an imperative today in a complex global work environment.
Managers who can effectively manage generational personalities and generational
conflict can create an environment conducive to each generation’s unique strengths. Such
intentional efforts should increase the chances of organizational success. While much has been
written about generational traits and characteristics, not much scholarly information is
specifically available regarding generational conflict. This dissertation explores the topic by
examining generational differences and the nature of conflict that typify those differences.
As leaders identify strengths and weaknesses of each generation, managers are better able
to understand each generation. As an understanding is gained, the leader can create an
environment conducive to each generation’s unique strengths; leaders can reap the benefits and
increase the chances of successful completion of projects and organizational success.
MANAGING GENERATIONAL WORKPLACE CONFLICT 2
Keywords: generations, multigenerational, conflict and tension, generational conflict,
generational differences, values, motivation, organizational commitment, destructive and
constructive conflict, cooperative and competitive conflict, Morton Deutsch’s “crude theory of
social relations.”
MANAGING GENERATIONAL WORKPLACE CONFLICT 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
“Since the general or prevailing opinion on any subject is rarely or never the whole
truth, it is only by the collision of adverse opinion that the remainder of the truth has any
chance of being supplied.” - John Stuart Mill
I acknowledge that in the pursuit of this journey, I truly know the completion of this
dissertation could not happen alone and it took the support of special people. The completed
dissertation holds more than the culmination of years of intense and rigorous study. This
dissertation reflects the relationships from two very important, very generous, and inspiring
dissertation advisors and other University of Maryland University College (UMUC) faculty
and staff that guided me throughout the dissertation journey, even when I could not see the
end product.
To my dissertation advisor Dr. Sharon Hadary thanks for your encouraging words,
thoughtful criticism, and time management skills. To my main dissertation advisor Dr.
Dennis Winters, there are no words to describe how your guidance made completing the
dissertation possible. I thank you for demonstrating that reflective thought along with
rigorous scholarship results in an intellectual body of work of significance. We have proven
that different generations can not only work and learn from each other, but laugh together.
Your actions provided me with a wider breath of reflective thinking about generational
conflict and conflict utilization than I could have never imagined alone. I simply say, I am
grateful beyond words for your tutelage, guidance, encouragement and support. I would also
like to thank the UMUC Doctor of Management faculty and staff for creating an incredible
knowledge opportunity and rewarding experience.
MANAGING GENERATIONAL WORKPLACE CONFLICT 4
DEDICATION
"The value of a man resides in what he gives and not in what he is capable
receiving." - Albert Einstein
As I draw closer to the completion of a personal milestone, I appreciate the
unwavering support of my family and friends. My faith in God strengthens me and I believe
that through a Divine Presence, the opportunity for me to succeed in life continues to
manifest in divine time.
While the completed dissertation is dedicated to several – my Mom, Dad, family and
friends, there are specific lessons learned during my personal maturation process that help to
shape my thinking. I realized the importance of perseverance and tenacity from my Mom,
who survived a head-on car collision when I was just nine years old. I watched as she
continued to raise eight children, while my Dad was on active duty in the U.S. Army. We
were raised in rural Virginia where access to equal education for minority students was often
a challenge, but I watched as my Mom made this a priority and maintained her position
against several odds in order for us to experience the same opportunities as other children.
Although my Dad passed away when I was 12 years old, he instilled the value of
education and how it is a pivotal path to a better life and how education helps create
opportunities to be successful. My professional experiences and graduate work are a
reflection of how I choose to honor his legacy.
I offer special thanks to my siblings and friends whose belief in me was a gentle
reminder that I have been given a tremendous opportunity (blessing) to make a
contribution and have a positive impact on the world. It would not have been possible for me
to complete my dissertation without your support.
MANAGING GENERATIONAL WORKPLACE CONFLICT 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 1
Acknowledgement .............................................................................................................. 3
Dedication.......................................................................................................................... 4
Table of Contents................................................................................................................ 5
List of Tables and Figures................................................................................................. 10
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 12
Overview......................................................................................................................... 12
Statement of Problem........................................................................................................ 16
Definition of Terms........................................................................................................... 21
Generational Cohort.................................................................................................... 22
Generational Scope ..................................................................................................... 22
Traditionalists ............................................................................................................. 22
Baby Boomers............................................................................................................. 23
Generation X............................................................................................................... 23
Generation Y............................................................................................................... 23
Conflict ....................................................................................................................... 24
Generational Conflict.................................................................................................. 25
Conflict Utilization ..................................................................................................... 25
Workplace Values....................................................................................................... 25
Research Questions........................................................................................................... 25
Value to Field of Management ......................................................................................... 26
Research Expectations/Assumptions ................................................................................ 28
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................. 29
Dissertation Organization ................................................................................................. 31
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................... 34
Introduction...................................................................................................................... 34
Theoretical Lenses ............................................................................................................ 35
Theme One: Historical Generational Cohort Perpective........................................... 36
Historical Perpective of Generational Cohorts ............................................................. 37
Theme Two: Generational Characteristics and Workforce Profiles ........................ 45
Generational Profile and Overview .............................................................................. 46
Traditionalist (1925 to 1945) .................................................................................... 46
Baby Boomers (1946 to 1964).................................................................................. 49
MANAGING GENERATIONAL WORKPLACE CONFLICT 6
Generation X (1965 to 1980) .................................................................................... 54
Generation Y (1981 to 1994) .................................................................................... 60
Theme Three: Identifying Generational Workforce Challenges and Opportunities67
Managing Generational Differences.............................................................................. 67
Life Experiences .................................................................................................... 68
Respect................................................................................................................... 69
Work Values/Motivation ....................................................................................... 70
Work Ethic, Managing Change and Perception of Organizational Hierarchy....... 72
Work/Life Balance................................................................................................. 72
Job and Pay Satisfaction ........................................................................................ 73
Communication...................................................................................................... 74
Expectation of Feedback........................................................................................ 75
Organizational and Work Commitment................................................................. 76
Training.................................................................................................................. 81
Recruitment and Retention Strategies.................................................................... 82
Employee Orientation ............................................................................................ 83
Theme Four: Generational Conflict: Constructive, Destructive and Perceptions .. 84
Conflict, Employee Perception and Conflict Stimulation............................................. 84
Conflict: Competitive and Cooperative ................................................................. 84
Conflict: Constructive and Destructive.................................................................. 89
Organizational Conflict: Employee Perception ..................................................... 95
Conflict Stimulation............................................................................................... 98
Theme Five: Managing Generational Conflict.......................................................... 101
Managing Generational Conflict.................................................................................. 101
Challenges to Managing Generational Conflict........................................................... 105
Theme Six: Conflict Utilization – Impactful Alternatives........................................ 106
Morton Deutsch: Insights for Conflict Resolution...................................................... 107
Dual Concern Model: Conflict Factors.............................................................. 107
Destructive Behavior .......................................................................................... 111
Conflict Issues: Resources, Preferences, Beliefs, Values, Relationships .......... 112
Barriers to Productive Conflict Resolution......................................................... 113
Escalation of Destructive Conflict ...................................................................... 114
Morton Deutsch’s Constructive Solutions to Conflict ................................................ 116
Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................ 123
CHAPTER III: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK.................................................... 126
Background................................................................................................................. 126
The Conceptual Model 1 Overview: A Heuristic Model of the Interplay Between
Generations, Conflict, and Conflict Utilization ................................................... 127
Figure 5 – Overview: Generational Differences......................................................... 129
MANAGING GENERATIONAL WORKPLACE CONFLICT 7
Figure 6 – Overview: Defining Multigenerational Workforce Conflict..................... 131
Figure 7 – Overview: Competitive and Cooperative Conflict .................................... 133
Figure 8 – Overview: Dual Concern Model of Concern for Self and Others ........... 136
Figure 9 – Overview: Psychological Process of Cooperation ................................... 139
Figure 10 – Overview: Conflict Resolution............................................................... 140
Chapter Summary ....................................................................................................... 142
CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY..................................................... 145
Overview........................................................................................................................ 145
Evidence-Based Research............................................................................................ 145
Summary.............................................................................................................. 148
Overview of Dissertation’s Evidence-Based Method.................................................. 149
Strengths of Conducting an Evidence-Based Systematic Review............................... 149
S.1. Provide an Objective, Reliable, and Comprehensive Summary................... 149
S.2. Organize Large Amounts of Information ..................................................... 150
S.3. Assess Type of Studies for Inclusion and Exclusion.................................... 151
S.4. Assess Quality and Methodological Soundness ........................................... 152
S.5. Assess External and Internal Validity........................................................... 155
Seven Step Methodology for Conducting the Systematic Review.............................. 155
1. Define the Research Question............................................................................ 156
2. Deciding What Types of Studies to Include ...................................................... 156
3. Search Strategies Conducted.............................................................................. 158
4. Critically Evaluate the Sources – Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria......................... 159
5. Critically Appraise the Included Studies - Quality Appraisal ........................... 173
6. Synthesize the Results and Assess Heterogeneity Among the Findings ........... 174
7. Disseminate the findings.................................................................................... 175
Synthesizing Using Meta-Synthesis ........................................................................... 175
Expert Review Panel................................................................................................... 176
Chapter Summary ....................................................................................................... 177
CHAPTER V: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ....................................................... 178
Overview – Summary of Findings.................................................................................. 178
Theme 1: Historical Generational Cohort Perspective ........................................ 179
Proposition 1 ........................................................................................................... 179
Findings................................................................................................................... 180
Consideration of Other Points of View .................................................................. 181
Theme 2: Generational Characteristics and Workforce Profiles........................ 183
Proposition 2 .......................................................................................................... 183
Findings.................................................................................................................. 183
Traditionalists .................................................................................................... 184
MANAGING GENERATIONAL WORKPLACE CONFLICT 8
Baby Boomers.................................................................................................... 186
Generation X...................................................................................................... 187
Generation Y...................................................................................................... 189
Consideration of Other Points of View.................................................................. 192
Theme 3: Identifying Generational Workforce Challenges and Opportunities 194
Proposition 3 .......................................................................................................... 194
Findings.................................................................................................................. 194
Life Experiences ................................................................................................ 195
Respect............................................................................................................... 195
Work Values/Motivation ................................................................................... 195
Work Ethic, Managing Chang
Trust development and sustainment between group members within midlevel organizational groups
No full textThe purpose of this dissertation was to examine the quick formation and sustainment of
trust between group members within midlevel organizational groups to improve group
performance, and to determine if a midlevel manager assigned to lead such groups can influence
the quick trust development and sustainment among group members. An evidence-based
research (EBR) approach was used to evaluate, synthesize and integrate known scholarship into
the dissertation, in order to respond to the dissertation’s research questions. A conceptual
framework was proffered that depicts how trust is rapidly formed and sustained within groups.
It was found that trust improves group performance. Within organizations, midlevel groups
become the collective bodies, facilitated by midlevel managers, where cooperative behavior and
the engagement of members leads to improved group performance, heightened productivity and
organizational success. The rapid formation and sustainment of trust within groups isRunning head: DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINMENT OF TRUST IN GROUPS
Trust Development and Sustainment between Group Members
within Midlevel Organizational Groups
by
John Berthold
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
Doctoral Committee:
Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D.
James P. Gelatt, Ph.D.
Leslie D. Dinauer, Ph.D.
DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINMENT OF TRUST IN GROUPS
2
Abstract
The purpose of this dissertation was to examine the quick formation and sustainment of
trust between group members within midlevel organizational groups to improve group
performance, and to determine if a midlevel manager assigned to lead such groups can influence
the quick trust development and sustainment among group members. An evidence-based
research (EBR) approach was used to evaluate, synthesize and integrate known scholarship into
the dissertation, in order to respond to the dissertation’s research questions. A conceptual
framework was proffered that depicts how trust is rapidly formed and sustained within groups.
It was found that trust improves group performance. Within organizations, midlevel groups
become the collective bodies, facilitated by midlevel managers, where cooperative behavior and
the engagement of members leads to improved group performance, heightened productivity and
organizational success. The rapid formation and sustainment of trust within groups is
advantageous because trust improves group performance and its early formation can lead to
increased group performance over time. Swift trust, a type of trust that is generally associated
with the temporary environment, is proposed as the catalyst for the quick formation of trust
within midlevel organizational groups. Swift trust also is sustainable in groups over time
through the influences provided by the manager / facilitator
Key Search Terms: Trust, Swift Trust, Trust Development, Trust Sustainment, Groups.
DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINMENT OF TRUST IN GROUPS
3
Contents
Chapter One: Introduction and Overview of Relevant Literature .................................................. 7
Statement and Significance of the Problem ................................................................................ 7
Purpose of the Dissertation ......................................................................................................... 8
Importance to Management ......................................................................................................... 8
Swift Trust ................................................................................................................................ 10
Manager / Facilitator ................................................................................................................. 10
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 11
Definitions ................................................................................................................................ 11
Research Propositions ............................................................................................................... 13
Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................... 14
Chapter Two: Systematic Review of the Literature ...................................................................... 16
Purpose of the Dissertation and Research Questions ................................................................ 16
Chapter Organization ................................................................................................................ 16
Trust Formation and Sustainment ............................................................................................. 17
The Individual....................................................................................................................... 17
Collectivism and the Group Dynamic ................................................................................... 20
Group Formation ................................................................................................................... 25
Group Size ............................................................................................................................. 28
Dyadic Relationships in Groups ............................................................................................ 35
Quick Trust Formation in Groups ......................................................................................... 41
Trust Development and Sustainment in Groups .................................................................... 52
The Midlevel Manager and Midlevel Management .................................................................. 58
DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINMENT OF TRUST IN GROUPS
4
Selected Roles of Midlevel Managers ................................................................................... 59
The Manager as a Facilitator of Trust ................................................................................... 61
Theoretical Lens ........................................................................................................................ 68
Psychosocial Development Theory ....................................................................................... 68
Small Group Development Theory........................................................................................ 70
Research Propositions............................................................................................................ 71
Summary of Chapter Two ......................................................................................................... 72
Chapter Three: Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................ 74
Graphical Analysis and Synthesis ............................................................................................. 75
The Group Entity ................................................................................................................... 75
The Manager / Facilitator ...................................................................................................... 75
Group Size ............................................................................................................................. 76
The Individual Employees ..................................................................................................... 76
Dyad Relationships ................................................................................................................ 77
The Rapid Formation of Trust ............................................................................................... 77
The Role of the Manager / Facilitator in Trust Formation and Sustainment ......................... 79
Adjustments ........................................................................................................................... 80
Conceptual Model ..................................................................................................................... 81
Summary of Chapter Three ....................................................................................................... 83
Chapter Four: Methodology .......................................................................................................... 84
Introduction to the Methodology............................................................................................... 84
The Theory and Practice of Evidence-based Research ............................................................. 84
Information Overload ............................................................................................................ 85
DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINMENT OF TRUST IN GROUPS
5
Objectivity and Research Bias ............................................................................................... 86
Research Effectiveness and Applicability ............................................................................. 88
Evidence-based Research and Evidence-based Management ................................................... 88
Evidence-based Research Applied to This Dissertation ........................................................ 90
The Systematic Review Process ................................................................................................ 91
Weight of Evidence (WoE) ................................................................................................... 91
Stages of an Effective Systematic Review Process ............................................................... 92
The Systematic Review of the Literature Applied to This Dissertation ................................... 95
Discussion of the Systematic Review Process and This Dissertation ................................... 97
Expert Panel Review ............................................................................................................... 102
Input from Panel Members .................................................................................................. 103
Summary of Chapter Four ....................................................................................................... 103
Chapter Five: Analysis and Discussion ...................................................................................... 104
Purpose of the Dissertation ..................................................................................................... 104
Presentation, Summary, and Analysis of the Findings............................................................ 105
Dissertation Question 1 ....................................................................................................... 105
Dissertation Question 2 ....................................................................................................... 108
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 109
Alternative Perspectives .......................................................................................................... 110
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 110
Chapter Six: Conclusions, Implications, and Trends .................................................................. 112
Overall Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 113
Implications for Management and Practitioner ....................................................................... 115
DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINMENT OF TRUST IN GROUPS
6
Implications of Emerging Trends ............................................................................................ 117
Limitations and Areas for Future Research............................................................................. 118
Limitations of the Literature ................................................................................................ 118
Areas for Future Research ................................................................................................... 119
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 119
Appendix A: Sample Expert Panel Questionnaire ..................................................................... 121
Appendix B: Expert Panel Biographies ...................................................................................... 123
References .................................................................................................................................. 125
DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINMENT OF TRUST IN GROUPS
7
Chapter One: Introduction and Overview of Relevant Literature
Statement and Significance of the Problem
Organizations are social entities, goal directed and designed as deliberately structured and
coordinated activity systems. Ultimately, since organizations are made up of people, the stability
and success of any organization will depend largely on the people within that organization to
collectively collaborate and interrelate at a group level in order to achieve the common
organizational goals that will help the organization succeed.
Midlevel management and midlevel working groups are critical components of
organizational design (Mintzberg, 1979). The midlevel managers are the mediators between top
management and the technical core, disseminating rules and information up and down the
hierarchy of an organization. The midlevel managers are responsible for ensuring the proper
implementation and coordination of activities at the working-group level of an organization. As
such, the midlevel groups become the collective bodies, managed by the midlevel managers,
where cooperative behavior and the engagement of their members lead to improved group
performance, heightening productivity and organizational success.
Trust is essential to the success of any organization or group since trust improves group
performance and ultimately benefits the organization (Davis, Schoorman, Mayer, and Tan 2000).
An understanding of how trust is formed and sustained within midlevel organizational groups is
therefore important for organizational success. The lack of trust can lead to the disintegration of
group cohesion and may cause organizations to fail (Creed & Miles, 1996). This means that the
processes used by management are critical in determining how trust is formed and how trust is
sustained within organizations and groups (Creed & Miles, 1996). As a result, the study of a
manager’s role in influencing the rapid formation and sustainment of trust is also important,
DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINMENT OF TRUST IN GROUPS
8
since a manager’s actions can facilitate or hinder the creation and continuation of trust within
groups.
Purpose of the Dissertation
The purpose of this dissertation was to examine the quick formation and sustainment of
trust between group members within midlevel organizational groups to improve group
performance, and to determine if a midlevel manager assigned to lead such groups can influence
the quick trust development and sustainment among group members.
Importance to Management
Trust is important at an organizational level and has been referred to as the “social glue”
that binds organizations together (Atkinson & Butcher, 2003). Trust promotes individual
creativity, improves productivity, and can reduce individual anxieties, for the betterment of both
the organization and the individual. Creed and Miles (1996) placed the importance of trust into
perspective by illuminating the consequences of trust failure in various organizational structures.
According to Creed and Miles (1996), “in functional forms, trust failures reduce efficiency; in
divisional forms, they reduce effectiveness and raise costs; in matrix forms, they cause the form
to fail; and in networks, they cause the firms to fail” (p. 26).
Trust also is important at a group level in organizations. Within the social context of an
organization, the development of trust within a group leads to cooperative behavior within the
group, a commitment towards achieving group objectives by its group members, and loyalty
toward each other within the group (Tyler & Kramer, 1996). The formation of trust within a
group, formed from the interdependence and collective perception of its members, is credited
with improving individual creativity and productivity within groups (Goodman & Goodman,
DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINMENT OF TRUST IN GROUPS
9
1976). Further, scholars suggest that the creation of an environment of trust at a group level is
instrumental in overcoming individual issues of vulnerability, uncertainty, risk, or predetermined
expectations in order to accomplish the goals of the group (Meyerson, Weick, & Kramer, 1996).
The study of midlevel organizational groups also is important because midlevel groups are the
working bodies within organizations where most organizational strategy is implemented (Raman,
2009) and where cooperative behavior and the collective engagement of group members leads to
greater organizational productivity.
The formation of trust in groups improves group performance and the positive effects of
trust on group performance can be sustained over time (Jong &Elfring, 2010). Group
performance is defined as “the extent to which the productive output of a team meets or exceeds
the performance standards of those who review and/or receive the output” (Hackman, 1987, p.
323). The effects of trust on performance are likely to be more pronounced as time passes
because long term groups tend to be more focused on interpersonal relationships, which
increases the impact of trust on member interactions (Saunders &Ahuja, 2006).Over time, “we
expect team performance to be positively affected by intra-team trust, because trust allows team
members to interact with one another as if their uncertainty and vulnerability were favorably
resolved” (Jong &Elfring, 2010, p. 536). As such, the earlier trust can be formed in an
organizational group, the better groups will perform over time (Jong &Elfring, 2010) and “Swift
trust,” which is normally associated with temporary groups, also can be used to promote and
reinforce later trusting behaviors that lead to greater performance in all types of groups (Crisp &
Jarvenpaa, 2013).
DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINMENT OF TRUST IN GROUPS
10
Swift Trust
Swift trust, as defined by Meyerson, Weick, and Kramer (1996), is a type of trust that is
generally created in temporary groups, where a unique form of collective perception develops,
capable of managing vulnerability, uncertainty, risk, and expectations within a group to
accomplish group goals. Although swift trust is generally associated with temporary teams or
groups, this is not always the case. Theorists have demonstrated that the early trusting beliefs
established by swift trust are extendable beyond the temporary environment and can lay the
foundations for later trusting behaviors within all groups. Crisp and Jarvenpaa (2013)
demonstrated that swift trust, as a temporary condition, can be sustained over time through
member reinforcement, group interaction, and reinforcements supplied by the actions of the
manager / facilitator and the authors also suggested that trust sustainment behaviors can be seen
in longer term groups, as well.
Manager / Facilitator
The midlevel manager assigned to lead a group plays a central role in determining how
trust is formed and sustained. The manager establishes expectations for the group, assigns tasks,
and defines goals. The manager controls the flow of information and becomes the focal point for
the sharing of information between group members and the outside entities (Creed & Miles,
1996). Individual group member decisions about whether to cooperate with a newly appointed
manager or to trust others within a group are based on individual perceptions and estimates of the
probability that the newly assigned manager will reciprocate their cooperation (Hardin, 2006).
Other authors, such as Goodman and Goodman (1976), demonstrate the power of the manager as
a facilitator or hinderer of individual professional growth in organizational groups. Additionally,
Bradach and Eccles (1989) suggest that trust can also be used as a mechanism or tool of
DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINMENT OF TRUST IN GROUPS
11
organizational control. Thus, an understanding of how trust is formed and sustained within
groups becomes a critical attribute for any manager assigned to lead a midlevel organizational
group.
Research Questions
1. How can trust be formed quickly and then sustained among group members within
midlevel organizational groups in order to improve group performance?
2. Can the midlevel manager influence the quick development and sustainment of trust
among group members?
Definitions
Of the literature reviewed to date for this dissertation, it has been noted that different authors
use different phraseology and definitions when referring to trust, teams and groups. Thus, a
review of the literature has provided the definitions below, which this dissertation author will use
in answering the research questions.
1. Calculus-based trust is a type of trust based on deterrence, developed because each party
fears the consequences of not doing what the other party says he or she will do.
Consequently, this form of trust assures a consistency of behavior between parties
(Lewicki & Bunker, 1996).
2. Category-base
Accountability for noncredit community college workforce programs: A systematic review
No full textThe purpose of this study was to investigate accountability standards that can be used to gauge
the outcomes of noncredit workforce training at community colleges. It is common for colleges
to provide a range of professional development and vocational training via noncredit
programming, yet there is little agreement on standards of performance for this activity.
Therefore, common data sets are lacking for assessing program outcomes at an institutional, state
or national level. A variety of stakeholders have an interest in gauging the quality of these
noncredit programs, and in an era of increased global economic competition, each of these
groups demands greater accountability for workforce development activities. Without agreedupon
standards of performance and programmatic assessment against such standards, the quality
of noncredit programming cannot be effectively assessed or held accountable for results.
The study incorporated tenets of stakeholder, human capital, and quality management theories to
create a framework for the analysis of this sector of community college practice. Using a
systematic, evidence-based review methodology to evaluate the existing research, the study
found specific expectations of noncredit training that were held in common across stakeholder
groups. Evidence was also found that certain performance indicators are used in common by
institutions in various states. This study proposes a set of performance indicators that are
justified on the basis of stakeholder expectations of noncredit outcomes. Using these indicators
as a gauge, both the assessment and accountability of this sector of community college activities
can be improved.
A conceptual model was developed within this study that incorporated two paradigms that exist
within the educational assessment literature. The accountability paradigm, a more summative
judgment of quality, was addressed by reporting performance metrics directly back to
stakeholder groups. The study confronted the second paradigm, one focused on program
improvement, by using a standard corporate model of continuous quality improvement (CQI).
This more formative assessment used performance indicators to guide process improvements via
the ‘quality circle’ process commonly used in CQI. Infusing the corporate CQI process into the
cycle of noncredit program delivery, evaluation and modification, with periodic reporting of
metrics back to stakeholders concerned with the outcomes is suggested by this study as a model
for practice in community colleges.
Suggestions for the direction of further research are included in the study’s conclusions and
recommendations. A tabular tool to gauge noncredit workforce program accountability is
included in the Appendices.ACCOUNTABILITY FOR NONCREDITWORKFORCE PROGRAMS - 1
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
Accountability for Noncredit
Community CollegeWorkforce
Programs: A Systematic Review
Paul Schreffler
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Management
August, 2014
Advisors: Dr. Patricia Keir and Dr. Jing Luan
© Copyright 2014
ACCOUNTABILITY FOR NONCREDITWORKFORCE PROGRAMS - 2
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate accountability standards that can be used to gauge
the outcomes of noncredit workforce training at community colleges. It is common for colleges
to provide a range of professional development and vocational training via noncredit
programming, yet there is little agreement on standards of performance for this activity.
Therefore, common data sets are lacking for assessing program outcomes at an institutional, state
or national level. A variety of stakeholders have an interest in gauging the quality of these
noncredit programs, and in an era of increased global economic competition, each of these
groups demands greater accountability for workforce development activities. Without agreed-upon
standards of performance and programmatic assessment against such standards, the quality
of noncredit programming cannot be effectively assessed or held accountable for results.
The study incorporated tenets of stakeholder, human capital, and quality management theories to
create a framework for the analysis of this sector of community college practice. Using a
systematic, evidence-based review methodology to evaluate the existing research, the study
found specific expectations of noncredit training that were held in common across stakeholder
groups. Evidence was also found that certain performance indicators are used in common by
institutions in various states. This study proposes a set of performance indicators that are
justified on the basis of stakeholder expectations of noncredit outcomes. Using these indicators
as a gauge, both the assessment and accountability of this sector of community college activities
can be improved.
A conceptual model was developed within this study that incorporated two paradigms that exist
within the educational assessment literature. The accountability paradigm, a more summative
judgment of quality, was addressed by reporting performance metrics directly back to
stakeholder groups. The study confronted the second paradigm, one focused on program
improvement, by using a standard corporate model of continuous quality improvement (CQI).
This more formative assessment used performance indicators to guide process improvements via
the ‘quality circle’ process commonly used in CQI. Infusing the corporate CQI process into the
cycle of noncredit program delivery, evaluation and modification, with periodic reporting of
metrics back to stakeholders concerned with the outcomes is suggested by this study as a model
for practice in community colleges.
Suggestions for the direction of further research are included in the study’s conclusions and
recommendations. A tabular tool to gauge noncredit workforce program accountability is
included in the Appendices.
Keywords: accountability, assessment, quality, TQM, CQI, noncredit, program outcomes,
workforce education, workforce development, performance indicators, performance standards,
performance metrics.
ACCOUNTABILITY FOR NONCREDITWORKFORCE PROGRAMS - 3
Contents
Abstract........................................................................................................................................................2
Tables and Figures .......................................................................................................................................6
Chapter One: Introduction ............................................................................................................................7
Background and Context..........................................................................................................................7
The Role of Noncredit Programming........................................................................................................9
Statement of the Problem........................................................................................................................13
Significance of the Problem....................................................................................................................19
Research Purpose ...................................................................................................................................22
The Value Equation – Economics, Expectations, and Accountability....................................................25
Training Evaluation Theory....................................................................................................................29
Significance to Practice of Community College Administration............................................................30
Research Questions................................................................................................................................31
Definition of Key Terms.........................................................................................................................31
Summary................................................................................................................................................33
Chapter Two: Literature Review.................................................................................................................34
Quality and Performance – A Historical Perspective .............................................................................34
Quality Concerns of Program Administrators ........................................................................................35
Accountability Concerns Arising at the State Level ...............................................................................37
A National Perspective on Noncredit Workforce Training.....................................................................40
Federal Legislation Regarding Performance Accountability..................................................................41
Accountability Concerns Continuing into the 21st Century ....................................................................46
The Structure of Noncredit Programming from a Business Perspective ................................................50
Connections to Adult Education and Management Theory ....................................................................53
Research Focus of the Evidence-Based Systematic Review...................................................................56
Criteria for Inclusion or Exclusion of Studies ........................................................................................58
Studies Included in this Systematic Review...........................................................................................59
Summary and Conclusions .....................................................................................................................97
Chapter Three: Conceptual Framework......................................................................................................98
Performance Indicators as Criteria for Accountability ...........................................................................98
Conflicting Assessment Imperatives – Accountability and Improvement............................................100
Consideration of the Needs and Conflicts of Multiple Stakeholders ....................................................101
ACCOUNTABILITY FOR NONCREDITWORKFORCE PROGRAMS - 4
Who Pays for the Service?....................................................................................................................102
Explanation of the Graphic Conceptual Model.....................................................................................105
Summary..............................................................................................................................................107
Chapter Four: Methodology.....................................................................................................................108
The Value of Systematic Review as a Research Methodology.............................................................108
The Systematic Review Process ...........................................................................................................111
Application of Systematic Review in This Study .................................................................................114
Extraction.............................................................................................................................................116
Analysis of Findings .............................................................................................................................123
Study of the Qualitative Format............................................................................................................123
Synthesis of Findings...........................................................................................................................124
Expert Review......................................................................................................................................124
Results and Recommendations .............................................................................................................126
Chapter Five: Findings and Analysis ........................................................................................................126
A Matrix of Results..............................................................................................................................126
Coding Schema and Indicator References ............................................................................................130
Analysis of the Matrix of Results .........................................................................................................134
Stakeholders with Modest or Minimal Expectations Found .................................................................134
Faculty..............................................................................................................................................135
Accreditors.......................................................................................................................................135
Stakeholders with Similar Expectations Found ....................................................................................136
Noncredit Workforce Program Enrollment.......................................................................................136
Industry-Recognized Credential or Certification ..............................................................................137
Licensure Achievement or Retention................................................................................................138
Noncredit Program Completion........................................................................................................139
Student Learning..............................................................................................................................140
Continuing Education Units (CEU’s) Earned...................................................................................142
Contact Hours ..................................................................................................................................142
Post-training Employment ................................................................................................................143
Post-training Income Level...............................................................................................................144
Employment Retention .....................................................................................................................144
Post-training Income Growth............................................................................................................145
ACCOUNTABILITY FOR NONCREDITWORKFORCE PROGRAMS - 5
Transition from Noncredit to Credit .................................................................................................145
Post-training productivity improvement ...........................................................................................146
Satisfaction.......................................................................................................................................147
Revenue Generation.........................................................................................................................147
Accessibility.....................................................................................................................................148
Program Alignment with Workforce Sector .....................................................................................148
Population Served .............................................................................................................................149
Faculty Characteristics.....................................................................................................................149
Funding ............................................................................................................................................150
Expenditures for Noncredit Instruction.............................................................................................151
Instructional Modality.......................................................................................................................152
Programming Type ...........................................................................................................................152
Number of Companies Served ..........................................................................................................153
Economic Development....................................................................................................................153
Summary..............................................................................................................................................155
Chapter 6: Proposed Performance Indicators, Implications and Need for Future Research.....................156
Analysis and Discussion .......................................................................................................................156
Important Considerations for Practitioners ...........................................................................................157
Implications for Practice .......................................................................................................................159
Implications of Recent Policy Legislation............................................................................................160
A Tool for Practitioners ........................................................................................................................162
Further Research Needed......................................................................................................................163
Conclusion ...........................................................................................................................................164
References................................................................................................................................................166
Appendix A – Accountability Tool...........................................................................................................175
Appendix B – Accountability Tool Definitions........................................................................................176
Appendix C – Letter to Expert Review Panel Member ............................................................................180
Appendix D – Expert Review Evaluation Form.......................................................................................182
ACCOUNTABILITY FOR NONCREDITWORKFORCE PROGRAMS - 6
Tables and Figures
Table 1 – Two Paradigms of Assessment .................................................................101
Table 2 – Terms used in Database Search.................................................................115-116
Table 3 – Studies Included within this Systematic Review......................................119-122
Table 4 – Matrix of Results.......................................................................................129
Table 5 – Performance Indicator References ............................................................130-134
Table 6 – Proposed Performance Indicators .............................................................155
Figure 1 – Community College Noncredit Education Framework...........................52
Figure 2 – A Conceptual Model for Accountability .................................................104
Figure 3 – Systematic Review Process Flowchart ....................................................111
ACCOUNTABILITY FOR NONCREDITWORKFORCE PROGRAMS - 7
Chapter One: Introduction
Background and Context
Community colleges in the United States have offered a variety of workforce training and
occupational education programs since the end of World War II (Daugherty & Bakia, 1999,
2000; Grubb, Badway & Bell, 1997, 2003; Zeiss & Associates, 1997). During the last few
decades, the role of workforce preparation and economic development at community colleges
has grown significantly (Doucette, 1993; United States Government Accounting Office, 1994;
Milam, 2005; NCES, 2005). This growth in workforce and economic development activity stems
from the community colleges’ mission to respond to the educational needs of the community.
This mission often includes an intent to provide affordable and accessible higher education
courses and services for a broad constituency. Many community colleges’ mission statements
focus not only on general and programmatic education and their transfer to subsequent higher
educational institutions; they also often reference the provision of career and professional
education in support of individual career development and general economic development, as
well as the lifelong learning of the college’s constituents.
The economic climate of the “Great Recession,” caused community colleges to focus
even more intently on the need for retooling the workforce by upgrading their knowledge and
skills to compete more effectively in a global marketplace (Atkinson, 2001; Zeiss, 1997; United
States Department of Education, 2006; Kirsch, Braun, Yamamoto, & Sum, 2007). Although the
criticality of this role has been recognized for quite some time, “the role of American community
co
Improving organizational citizenship behavior through trust building between supervisors and subordinates: A systematic review of evidence
No full textThis dissertation assessed the impact of trust between supervisors and subordinates on organizational citizenship behavior and examined individual characteristics engendering trust in a vertical relationship. Based on a systematic review of evidence, trust between a supervisor and a subordinate was shown to positively affect a subordinate’s individual-directed and organization-directed organizational citizenship behaviors. Building on this finding, the author further examined the individual characteristics that engendered trust between supervisors and subordinates. Available evidence was synthesized based on realist synthesis and Context-Intervention-Mechanism-Outcome (CIMO) logic. Ability, benevolence, and integrity were identified as interventions that enhance vertical trust while their degrees of significance varied depending on the context. The author identified trust propensity and reciprocity as mechanisms that enhance the effects of these interventions on vertical trust. This dissertation contributes to the research on OCB and vertical trust by developing a framework that shows the relationship between trust antecedents, trust engendering mechanisms, and organizational citizenship behavior. This framework provides an evidence-based process for improving supervisor-subordinate relations and facilitating the OCB potential of subordinates into extra-role performance. It also informs management practice as to how contexts such as experience level, competency concerns, industry type, role-related expectations, ethical standards, and relationship duration shape the role of individual trustworthiness characteristics.VERTICAL TRUST AND OCB 1
Improving Organizational Citizenship Behavior Through Trust Building Between Supervisors and Subordinates: A Systematic Review of Evidence
Omer F. Ozbek
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Management
Faculty Advisors
Deborah M. Wharff, D.M.
Sharon G. Hadary, Ph.D
Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D
April 25, 2014
VERTICAL TRUST AND OCB 2
Abstract
This dissertation assessed the impact of trust between supervisors and subordinates on organizational citizenship behavior and examined individual characteristics engendering trust in a vertical relationship. Based on a systematic review of evidence, trust between a supervisor and a subordinate was shown to positively affect a subordinate’s individual-directed and organization-directed organizational citizenship behaviors. Building on this finding, the author further examined the individual characteristics that engendered trust between supervisors and subordinates. Available evidence was synthesized based on realist synthesis and Context-Intervention-Mechanism-Outcome (CIMO) logic. Ability, benevolence, and integrity were identified as interventions that enhance vertical trust while their degrees of significance varied depending on the context. The author identified trust propensity and reciprocity as mechanisms that enhance the effects of these interventions on vertical trust. This dissertation contributes to the research on OCB and vertical trust by developing a framework that shows the relationship between trust antecedents, trust engendering mechanisms, and organizational citizenship behavior. This framework provides an evidence-based process for improving supervisor-subordinate relations and facilitating the OCB potential of subordinates into extra-role performance. It also informs management practice as to how contexts such as experience level, competency concerns, industry type, role-related expectations, ethical standards, and relationship duration shape the role of individual trustworthiness characteristics.
Keywords: Organizational Citizenship Behavior, OCB, OCBI, OCBO, Trust, Dyadic Relationship, Social Exchange, Supervisor-Subordinate, Ability, Integrity, Benevolence, Reciprocity, Trust Propensity, Systematic Review, Realist Synthesis, CIMO logic
VERTICAL TRUST AND OCB 3
Acknowledgements
Thanks to God for the health, wealth, wisdom, and faith He has given me to accomplish this journey. He is the most Gracious, the most Merciful, the Sustainer. May peace be upon the last Messenger, his predecessors, companions, and followers.
I want to extend my deepest thanks to my family, particularly my wife Havva and son Furkan, for their support, patience, and sacrifice during my doctoral education.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my dissertation advisory committee, Dr. Deborah Wharff, Dr. Sharon Hadary, and Dr. Kay Edwards, for their support, guidance, and enthusiasm. I would particularly like to thank my primary advisor Dr. Deborah Wharff for her valuable guidance, encouragement, and kind support in my journey to become a scholar practitioner. I would also like to thank Dr. John Sherlock for his expert guidance on methodology.
I would like to express my appreciation to my Expert Panel, Dr. Robert Liden, Dr. Kilic Kanat, and Dr. Mehmet Okur. Their feedback and insights significantly helped improve the quality of this dissertation. I would also like to extend a very special thanks to my boss Erol Cebeci for his support, encouragement, and understanding. I would also like to thank to my cohort and wish them success in their lives.
VERTICAL TRUST AND OCB 4
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 3
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 4
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. 7
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ 8
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of Relevant Literature ....................................................... 9
1.1 Statement and significance of the problem ............................................................................... 9
1.2 Leadership Domain and Level of Analysis ............................................................................. 12
1.3 Organizational Citizenship Behavior ...................................................................................... 14
1.4 Vertical Dyadic Trust .............................................................................................................. 15
1.5 Importance to Management .................................................................................................... 16
1.6 Propositions and Research Questions ..................................................................................... 19
1.7 Organization of the dissertation .............................................................................................. 20
Chapter 2: Research Methodology and Approach ........................................................................ 22
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 22
2.2 Evidence-Based Movement .................................................................................................... 22
2.3 Systematic Reviews ................................................................................................................ 25
2.4 Identification of evidence ....................................................................................................... 27
2.5 Quality Appraisal of Evidence ................................................................................................ 29
2.6 Data Analysis & Realist Synthesis ......................................................................................... 31
2.7 Advisory Panel of Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) ................................................................ 33
2.8 Summary ................................................................................................................................ 35
Chapter 3: Systematic Review of Evidence .................................................................................. 36 VERTICAL TRUST AND OCB 5
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 36
3.2. Discussion of Theoretical Lenses .......................................................................................... 37
3.2.1 Organizational citizenship behavior theory. ........................................................................ 37
3.2.2 Integrative model of trust. .................................................................................................... 41
3.2.3 Social exchange theory. ....................................................................................................... 44
3.3 Vertical Dyadic Trust’s relationship with Organizational Citizenship Behavior ................... 47
3.4 Critical Factors of the Subordinate’s Trust in the Supervisor................................................. 61
3.5 Critical Factors of the Supervisor’s Trust in a Subordinate .................................................... 69
3.6 Summary ................................................................................................................................ 75
Chapter 4: Analysis and Discussion ............................................................................................. 77
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 77
4.2 The Relationship between Vertical Trust and Organizational Citizenship Behaviors ........... 79
4.3 Individual Characteristics as Interventions ............................................................................. 82
4.3.1 Ability and context. .............................................................................................................. 83
4.3.2 Benevolence and context. .................................................................................................... 87
4.3.3 Integrity and context. ........................................................................................................... 89
4.4 Moderator Variables as Enhancing Mechanisms .................................................................... 92
4.4.1 Trust propensity. .................................................................................................................. 93
4.4.2 Reciprocity. .......................................................................................................................... 95
4.5 Research Questions, Propositions, and Warrants in Light of Findings .................................. 99
4.6 Other Points of View ............................................................................................................ 100
4.7 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 102
Chapter 5: Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................. 104
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 104
5.2 Underlying logic ................................................................................................................... 105 VERTICAL TRUST AND OCB 6
5.3 Theoretical underpinnings of contextual analysis................................................................. 107
5.4 Graphical display and explanation of the framework ........................................................... 108
5.5 Discussion of relevant theories ............................................................................................. 113
5.6 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 114
Chapter 6: Conclusions, Implications and Trends ...................................................................... 116
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 116
6.2 Overall conclusions ............................................................................................................... 117
6.3 Implications for management ............................................................................................... 119
6.4 Implications of emerging trends ........................................................................................... 124
6.5 Limitations and areas for future research .............................................................................. 126
6.6 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 129
References .................................................................................................................................. 131
Appendix A: Related databases and their providers ................................................................... 150
Appendix B: Final version of the search string .......................................................................... 151
Appendix C: Inclusion and Exclusion criteria ............................................................................ 152
Appendix D: Search Results ....................................................................................................... 153
Appendix E: Quality Assessment Tool ....................................................................................... 154
Appendix F: Flow of documents................................................................................................. 156
Appendix G: Data Extraction Tool ............................................................................................. 157
Appendix H: Feedback from Subject Matter Experts ................................................................. 158 VERTICAL TRUST AND OCB 7
List of Tables
Table 1: List of Most Relevant Academic Journals ...................................................................... 29
Table 2: Expected Contribution of Subject Matter Experts ......................................................... 33
Table 3: Feedback from Subject Matter Experts .......................................................................... 34
Table 4: Dimensions of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors .................................................... 39
Table 5: Trust Antecedents and Their Definitions ........................................................................ 43
Table 6: Components of CIMO-Logic ....................................................................................... 106
VERTICAL TRUST AND OCB 8
List of Figures
Figure 1: Four Elements of Evidence-Based Management .......................................................... 24
Figure 2: Four Dimensions of Research Quality .......................................................................... 30
Figure 3: Intertwined Circles of the Supervisor’s Trust in the Subordinate ................................. 72
Figure 4: General Diagram of CIMO-Logic ............................................................................... 105
Figure 5: The Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................ 109
VERTICAL TRUST AND OCB 9
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of Relevant Literature
1.1 Statement and significance of the problem
Members of modern organizations establish and maintain vertical dyadic relationships in the role of supervisor or subordinate to accomplish organizational goals. The quality and dynamics of this relationship have been the subject of theoretical and empirical studies in social and behavioral sciences. Research has identified that supervisors develop differentiated relationships with their subordinates at the dyadic level (Brower, Schoorman, & Tan, 2000; Graen & Scandura, 1987; Gooty & Yammarino, 2011; Knoll & Gill, 2011) and the dynamics of this relationship significantly change the outcome of the relationship (Dirks & Ferrin, 2002; Kramer, 1999; Schoorman, Mayer, & Davis, 2007). Among the outcomes of the relationship, a subordinate’s altruism, helping behaviors, civic virtue, sportsmanship, and courtesy are categorized as organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) (Organ, 1988; Williams & Anderson, 1991). OCB is defined as “performance that supports the social and psychological environment in which task performance takes place” (Organ, 1997, p. 95) and has been recognized as a key contributor to productivity, profitability, turnover reduction, and customer satisfaction (Ilies, Nahrgang, Morgeson, 2007; Podsakoff, Whitining, Podsakoff, & Blume, 2009; Truckenbrodt, 2000). Further research has identified vertical trust between a supervisor and a subordinate as a significant factor for a subordinate’s OCB (Dirks & Ferrin, 2002; Kacmar, Bachrach, Harris, & Noble, 2012; Konovsky & Pugh, 1994; Pillai, Schriesheim, & Williams, 1999). Considering the accumulation of diverse yet independent studies on vertical trust and OCBs, there is a need for systematically reviewing the evidence to integrate supervisor and subordinate perspectives on vertical trust and evaluate how vertical trust relates to OCBs. The purpose of this dissertation is to assess the impact of trust between supervisors and subordinates on OCB and to examine VERTICAL TRUST AND OCB 10
individual characteristics engendering trust in a vertical dyadic relationship.
Besides seeking maximum performance on job-related tasks for which employees receive compensation, organizations are increasingly relying on discretionary employee efforts to improve organizational effectiveness (Kataria, Garg, & Rastogi, 2012). These discretionary behaviors are the basis for OCB, which support an organization’s social and psychological environment and create benefits for the organization as well as the individual displaying them. OCBs contribute to organizational success by enhancing managerial productivity, collaboration, and adaptation capacity, as well as reducing turnover and absenteeism (Kataria et al., 2013; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). Individual-level benefits of OCB include achieving higher job performance ratings and priority in reward allocation decisions such as pay raises and promotions (Allen & Rush, 1998; Podsakoff et al., 2009). Although OCBs cannot be enforced as requirements of a job description or an employment contract, supervisors can enhance their employees’ OCBs through social exchange and relationship building. Trust is identified as a key relational resource, particularly in a dyadic relationship that fosters and encourages OCBs (Dirks & Ferrin, 2002; Kacmar, et al., 2012; Konovsky & Pugh, 1994; Pillai, et al., 1999).
Trust enhances the willingness to work together in today’s increasingly diverse workforce where people are less able to rely on common backgrounds or interpersonal similarity (Fulmer & Gelfand, 2012). Trust between supervisors and subordinates becomes particularly essential under high-risk, time-pressured, dynamic conditions (Burke, Sims, Lazzara, & Salas, 2007). Mutual trust facilitates cohesion and collaboration between a supervisor and a subordinate (Boies & Howell, 2006; Gilbert & Tang, 1998; Kramer, 2010; Uhl-Bien, 2003). High levels of trust by a subordinate in a supervisor have shown to improve communication and information VERTICAL TRUST AND OCB 11
sharing (Ferrin, Dirks, & Shah, 2006), performance (Dirks & Ferrin 2002; Shaw, 1997), job satisfaction (Gillespie &Mann, 2004) and decrease turnover (Dirks & Ferrin, 2001). Particularly, high levels of vertical trust have been shown to improve a subordinate’s individual-directed and organization-directed OCB (Deluga, 1994, Ilies et al., 2007; Scandura & Pellegrini, 2008). OCBs include altruism (Organ, 1990), interpersonal facilitation (Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996), and helping and cooperating with others (Bennett & Stamper, 2001; Graham & Van Dyne, 2006; Podsakoff, Ahearne, & MacKenzie, 1997). These behaviors are discretionary in nature such that they are not enforceable requirements of a job description or an employment contract. However, research has shown that these behaviors can lead to critical contributions to an organization by enhancing co-worker and supervisory productivity, reducing use of scarce resources in operational functions, strengthening the organization’s ability to retain the best talents, and improving the organization’s ability to adapt to changes in environment (Podsakoff et al., 2009).
On the other hand, lack of mutual trust is shown to reduce citizenship behaviors and lead to absenteeism and counterproductive behavior (Brower, Lester, Korsgaard, & Dineen, 2009; Colquitt, Scott, & LePine, 2007; Podsakoff, et al., 2009). Lack of trust between supervisors and subordinates increases the cost of doing business as both members of the dyad engage in self-protective actions and make provisions against opportunistic behavior by the other (Limerick & Cunnington, 1993). In addition, lack of trust experienced by either member of the vertical dyad reduces the positive outcomes of this relationship (Brower, et al., 2009), such as the willingness to take risks and innov