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Biological and Social Science integration delivers reflective thinking pedagogy
No full textAbstract: For nearly six decades, often arbitrary lines of difference have separated the thinking, research and theorizing of so-called "hard" and "soft" sciences, quantitative and qualitative research, and primary and secondary inquiry. In the last two decades, biological research has grown impatient with its own "narrow" research projects and has begun movement toward the realizations of "emergent" thinkers, chaos, and complexity. Social scientists have been attracted to genome studies and, especially, brain (fMRI and brain injury) research and, in particular, the uses of biological research in pedagogy on all levels. Driven by barely 15 years of the knowledge that the brain is plastic (it restructures itself as a result of interactions with the environment), a new realization of the importance of successful teaching methods has arisen. This presentation combines an on-going study of biological and social science understandings of higher order thinking and ways of expanding the teaching of thinking in conceptual and abstract thought.Working with concept in qualitative research
“Thought is what goes on in our heads. Thought is what, especially when we put them together, comes out of them.” Clifford Geertz (1983)
Two Changes in Academic Research
Macro Change: Consilience
“A jumping together of knowledge by the linking of facts and fact-based theory across disciplines to create a groundwork of explanation.”
Wilson, E.O. (1998)
Micro Change: Focus on Concept, DM Program, UMUC
“Conceptual prisms and axial structures are valuable because they allow one to adopt a multi-perspective standpoint in trying to understand social change, but they do not forgo the value of perceiving the “primary logic” of key institutions or axial principles within a particular scheme.”
Bell (1973)
A Serious Gap Between Brain Research and Social Science of Pedagogy
Lack of intention of biological researchers to apply findings to teaching;
Lack of effort and interdisciplinary knowledge of teachers in Social Sciences
Focus by teachers on articles instead of books (individual studies – little theory)
Some on both sides are “stretching” across this gap in creative ways.
The Problem: Difficulty Forming Concept
“Workshops for doctoral supervisors also show unawareness of pluralistic function of conceptual frameworks, consequently some supervisors encounter difficulties in guiding candidates on this issue. Despite clarifying research questions and reading around their subject, one third of the candidates still had problems with visualizing concepts within a framework.” Lesham & Trafford (2007)
“Forming an integrated concept…exposes the previous hidden interrelatedness of something. Integration is troublesome because you need to acquire the bits before you integrate, but once you’ve got the bits you need to be persuaded to see them in a different way.” Meyer & Land (2007)
Study Problem & Prospect
Concept creation as a professor – student problem in general & in UMUC
Change in definitions of higher order thinking in last twenty years of combined brain and pedagogical research
This study’s suggestions as to remediation of concept creation deficit
UMUC Students Confront Challenges
All the “normal” Conceptual Problems,
A need to learn inter-disciplinary research approaches (From Biology to Hermeneutics)
Enough Inter-disciplinary knowledge to access “hard science” materials
Not-so-Guarded Academic Research Secret
Most primary research done by students starts off with an already understood concept –usually of the professor’s interest and knowledge
Executing the experiment is actually doing work on some aspect of that concept/theory as fully understood by the professor.
UMUC/DM Teacher – Student Challenge
The teacher should know:
The soft and hard science theory that relates to a stated problem;
How to locate the concept within management and other theories with implications to a given concept/study topic.
How to explicate a particular management scenario related to the concept.
UMUC/DM Teacher – Student Challenge
The student should:
Do a near saturation reading of biological “hard science” and “soft science” evidence regarding the concept and the management scenario.
Work toward a synthesis of the chosen narrow research area and have learned enough about the concept to critically locate it within the theory.
Be able to re-evaluate - affirm or confront - some conceptual aspect of currently established theory.
Faculty Challenges
Knowledge of theory on the part of the teacher and an equally challenging demand to work with several theories simultaneously with the student.
Awareness of “consilient” methodologies and the ability to understand the epistemological understandings of both hard and soft science research on the part of the student and the teacher;
Heightened demand for filtering and evaluating significantly more secondary research (EBR) than in primary or even the average anthropology-type studies (field studies and ethnography)
Form research syntheses and abstract concepts covering broader research materials and their often unstated assumptions and the demand to relate these synthesis discoveries to established theory.
Form frameworks and concepts capable of embracing pluralistic levels and patterns
Frame patterns capable of integrating complex bits n’ pieces of emergent situations into abstract premises and the application of these premises to management scenarios.
Synopsis of Solution to Concept Deficit
Teachers, in an atmosphere of open attunement
Share intra-personal narratives with students in order to
Make a transparent connection between the thinking done in reflexive “talking to one’s self” and the thinking done in reflective work on concept.
Working back and forth from reflexive, intra-personal narrative to inter-personal narrative, the teacher will make the process of pluralistic “levels” clear enough to the student that independent work is possible in concept shaping and formation.
Three Levels of Solution Logic
Level 1
A research-based change in definitions emerge when:
Reflective thinking in qualitative research is best understood and defined as higher order multi-dimensional thought that emphasizes
Focused attention and concentration on forming and discriminating complex patterns.
In order to derive, compose and discriminate various coherent and plausible abstract premises capable of comprehending pluralistic patterns and multi-level concepts.
Three Levels of Solution Logic
Level 2
The newly realized transformational element for remediation of concept difficulty becomes potentially remediable when:
Abstract premises and derived concepts are co-created within an emergent narrative shared between professor and student and that intra-personal biography is clearly and transparently connected to inter-personal narrative.
Similarities between the reflexive intra-personal conversation is properly explained, a selective tool for opening up the available potential of managed reflective thinking can be created.
A method for using reflective, iterative, re-entry of uninterrupted thought is made transparently clear by the teacher and is understood by the student as normally available.
Three Levels of Solution Logic
Level III
Attunement between Teacher and Student allows:
An in-practice understanding of the connection between reflective and reflexive thought is seen by the student as normal and credible,
The student to work independently through developed exercises in reflective thought and can begin the coached formation of concepts
Student and teacher share problems encountered with concept formation, then begin to frame patterns and construct pluralistic associations and relationships shaped within multi-levels of reflective thought difficulty is experienced.
Study’s resulting hypothesis
Deficits in conceptual thinking and written and spoken articulations can be significantly remedied when the gradient quality of the attuned professor-student relationship has developed into open sharing and connected clarity of intra-personal thinking/conversation and inter-personal thinking/conversation.
Critical Thinking
It is of value to see critical thinking as “thinking about thinking.”
…to see critical thinking as meta-cognitive training, the confirmation of existing information.
Geertson (2007) defines critical thinking as evaluative thinking.
Critical thinking asks: Are they really facts or just personal preferences? Are the sources credible? Are the so-called facts based on reasonable inferences?
A California study 89% of college professor respondents said critical thinking was one of their teaching objectives – only 19% could explain what it was and less than 10% were actually teaching it on a regular basis.
Geertson (2003)
Reflexive and Reflective Thinking
Seen (fMRI) in partially different brain locations with different intensities, these both operate on a gradient continuum.
However, there is significant educational value in arbitrarily separating them by way of pedagogical approach.
“A term sometimes interchanged with the word reflexive is the idea of reflective awareness. Being reflective includes reflexivity as one of its dimensions. Others view reflection as an active, conscious, effortful process whereas reflexivity… is automatic, effortless and non-conceptual. Reflexivity implies a more immediate capacity of the mind to know itself, without effort, without conscious observation, without words.”
Siegal (2007)
Reflexive Thinking
Is best thought of as “talking to your self.”
“It enables self-awareness of her dynamic role in the affirmation and/or reshaping of her social and cultural world.” Geertson (2003)
“When this kind of thinking is used, the individual sees problems in concrete and yet, simplistic ways.” King & Kitchener (1994)
“This reflexive quality helps us to understand the nature of awareness of awareness: the re-entry of sensing one’s own awareness of being aware of being aware. We can view reflexive awareness as the more automatic meta-awareness within the larger framework of reflection.”
Siegal (2007)
Everyday Talk and Concept Creation
“…on average, humans spend 80% of their time in the company of others…mostly one-on-one with known individuals…80 to 90% are about specific named and known individuals, which is to say, small talk…Bob’s tee time, Bill’s new Porsche and the new secretary … are getting 90% of the time.
Gazzaniga (2008)
“Two thirds of conversations are self-disclosure; 11% are about states of mind or body; the rest are preferences, plans and doings.”
Gazzaniga (2008)
Reflective Thinking
“Involves a broader focus and tends to enlarge thinking; contextualization directs attention to linkages that extend across multiple layers and consequences to human experience.”
“Dimensional judging addresses the multi-dimensional nature of reality; theory building explores logical relationships between broad areas…”
“Both interpretation and extrapolation are examples of reflective thinking. Where interpretation explores the ‘essential meaning of something’, extrapolation uses abstract thinking to explore possible connections between the known and the unknown including the ability to imagine the value and the worth of something in unexplored areas.”
Geertson, (2003)
Reflexive and Reflective Best Seen as a Continuum of Re-entry
The brain is selectional (Edelman, 2006) and integrative (Duncan, 2010) allowing for intentional management of re-entry into consciousness.
The brain facility can hold and engage in iterative re-entry to intentionally manipulate and discriminate among multi-level and pluralistic patterns of relationships and associations. Torey (1999)
There are Three Levels of Reflective Thinking
Pre-reflective: knowledge is gained by direct observation or an authority figure and is absolutely certain.
Quasi-reflective level recognizes that understanding ill-structured problems can be complicated and knowledge is uncertain; knowledge is based on personal opinion.
Highest Level of Reflective thinking: knowledge is gained from a variety of sources and understood in a particular context; recognizes that some judgments are more accurate than others. Evaluation criteria: conceptual soundness, coherence, the degree of fit with data, meaningfulness and parsimony.
King and Kitchener (1994)
Making Relationships
O-Relational: all figures in the matrix are identical; require no relational thinking.
1-relational: each line features a different type of figure; you evaluate the relationship in either the horizontal or vertical dimension.
2-relational: matrices problems increase geometrically in complexity. You are no longer comparing apples and oranges but must find the key relationship between arrays of apple and peach hybrids presented in variations of French and American tarts.
Christoff, in Stein (2007)
Relationships Multiply (fMRI)
“Results showed that the prefrontal cortex was activated when the two tasks were performed simultaneously but not when the tasks were performed individually.”
Joseph LaDoux (2002)
“With immediate attention to area 10, the moment, the person began to puzzle over a 2-relational problem, his or her anterior PFC would light up immediately and powerfully….We already knew that most reasoning activates the entire PFC, but it was surprising that the two-relational was so focal, rather than a big blob of activations usually seen in PFC. The one-relational was already ‘serious thinking.’ But moving up a level in complexity nicely isolated the anterior region.”
Stein (2007)
Managed Cognition in Collaborative Pedagogy
Since the brain is effectively selectional, it is able to manage pluralistic patterns and levels and work within these patterns and levels.
“Again the power of cognitive focus – of admitting into consideration just one feature of the problem, using the implications of this one feature to direct useful thought and conclusions.“
Duncan (2010).
”At the same time, may other parts of the brain follow suit, to the degree that they are able… Through the broad connections of the prefrontal cortex – and possibly, other multiple demand regions – the whole body of work is integrated. The cognitive enclosure is assembled; the mental program is kept on track.”
Duncan (2010)
“The evolution of our higher-order capacities to create and propagate ever more complex and indirect forms of constraint has expanded the capacity to restrict sequences of causal processes to certain very precise options.”
Deacon (2012)
The Key: Getting use to handling Abstraction and Cognition
“Abstraction exposes the underlying structure of concept or abstraction can involve the creation and organization of high-level concepts, actions and procedures in the form of concept maps, conceptual frameworks, etc.”
Meyer and Land, (2003)
“Knowledge visualization can support meta-cognition by helping learners develop an awareness of their mental representations, which can help foster conceptual change and knowledge transfer…Forming a threshold concept is integrative, that is exposes the previously hidden interrelatedness of something.”
Meyer and Land (2003)
Brain in “Neuroception”
…our nervous system evaluates the state of threat or safety … activates the brainstem’s vagal and autonomic systems…
With attunement creating a sense of safety, activation of the “smart” vagus occurs with softening of facial muscles, relaxed vocal tones (and) supports the individual becoming open and approaching others…
A qualitative sense … of the receptive dimension of reflecitive awareness. Siegal (2007)
The key characteristics for handling concept remediation
A more than average ability to be openly transformable:
“When engaging in autobiographical reflection, we can see…this characteristic of awareness with attention.”
“Reflexivity creates awareness of awareness; this reflective of memory and narrative integration from mindful exploration is deeply liberating.”
Siegal (2007)
A more than average ability to share biographical narrative:
“A narrative is able to transfer tacit knowledge without verbalizing it.”
Czarniawska (1999)
Making a Transparent Connection
…between the teacher-student reflexive intra-personal narrative and the shared inter-personal reflection
“The student-teacher and the students-teacher reflect simultaneously on themselves and the world without dichotomizing this reflection from action, and thus, establish an authentic form of thought and action.”
Friere (2002)
…using analogies to show that reflective thinking and the forming of concepts have abilities that fit the forming of a concept
Cognitive enclosures as a management tool
“By bringing together ‘integration,’ ‘coherence,’ and ‘resonance’…we can create an integrated and coherent mindfulness which allows us to take advantage of complexity theory…defined as ‘states of a system that maximize complexity to achieve stability.’”
Siegal (1999)
Connecting Intra- toInter-Personal
In essence, you do not just refer to some analogical aspect of the student’s interpersonal experience; rather you use the reflexive narrative to exemplify the method of multi-level thinking and conceptual framing of reflective thought. You show the student that this process of thinking is not foreign to him; he/she has spent a full-life, largely unnoticed, talking to himself as he transfers to reflective thought.
“Mindfulness is a form of paying attention in the present moment, on purpose … this is a way of being that is quite enveloped in fullness of intent.”Siege
Does Pennsylvania sedge inhibit tree regeneration?: Applied research for a general biology assignment on the scientific method
No full textIntroduction - Scientific literacy is an integral component of a well-rounded undergraduate education. Hypothesis testing and data analysis are two critical skills students should attain in general education science courses. I used field data from a research project in forest ecology to design an assignment for general biology classes that gives students practical experience in the scientific method, as well as engagement in a real-world ecological problem. The concern is whether the recent expansion of a perennial ground species, Pennsylvania sedge, inhibits the regeneration of tree species that dominate old-growth forests in the Upper Midwest. This is important because Penn sedge may cause these mature forests to decline from lack of reproduction, and it may also decrease the biodiversity of the ground cover. To date the evidence regarding the impact of the sedge on tree growth and biodiversity is inconclusive. In recent years I have established several large permanent plots in regional forests. A study area with patches of sedge cover was chosen to gather data for the students to test hypotheses that sedge deters tree reproduction and decreases biodiversity.Does Pennsylvania sedge inhibit tree regeneration? - applied research for a general biology assignment on the scientific method
Report for UMUC Summer 2013 Faculty Research Grant - Dennis A. Riege
Introduction - Scientific literacy is an integral component of a well-rounded undergraduate education. Hypothesis testing and data analysis are two critical skills students should attain in general education science courses. I used field data from a research project in forest ecology to design an assignment for general biology classes that gives students practical experience in the scientific method, as well as engagement in a real-world ecological problem. The concern is whether the recent expansion of a perennial ground species, Pennsylvania sedge, inhibits the regeneration of tree species that dominate old-growth forests in the Upper Midwest. This is important because Penn sedge may cause these mature forests to decline from lack of reproduction, and it may also decrease the biodiversity of the ground cover. To date the evidence regarding the impact of the sedge on tree growth and biodiversity is inconclusive. In recent years I have established several large permanent plots in regional forests. A study area with patches of sedge cover was chosen to gather data for the students to test hypotheses that sedge deters tree reproduction and decreases biodiversity.
Methods - Field work was accomplished during 2-4 August 2013 in a permanent study plot at Trout Lake Cathedral Point, Vilas County, Wisconsin. In 189 quadrats of 2 x 2 meters along transects across the plot were recorded the presence of all ground species, percent cover of Penn sedge, and counts of all established tree seedlings. A total of 124 white pine and 95 sugar maple seedlings were found in the quadrats. Other tree seedlings were few, so I confined the assignment to analysis of white pine and sugar maple.
Using the field data, I created an assignment for my four Fall 2013 courses of BIOL 101/103. The assignment was due in the 7th week to coincide with the ecology section of the courses. After the students were given background information, they were asked to use the data to address 3 hypotheses - that Penn sedge (A) inhibits white pine regeneration, (B) inhibits sugar maple regeneration, (C) decreases biodiversity. The data were presented in an MS Excel spreadsheet that listed for each quadrat % Penn sedge cover and numbers of white pine seedlings, sugar maple seedlings, and species. Students were given hints on how to process the data, but were also encouraged to be creative and told that there were many ways to attack the problem. Students were asked to generate a new hypothesis that built on the results. Near the end of the course, I opened a conference where students could evaluate the assignment by answering a brief questionnaire as an anonymous attachment that was not opened until after grades were posted. Students were also encouraged to post questions or comments about the assignment during the course.
Results and Discussion - Most students did quite well with the assignment, especially considering the challenge of working with raw data without obvious patterns. The students were forewarned that the data were "messy" and that the exercise was not a canned lab to illustrate a principle, but a "real world" test of hypotheses. With regression analyses, I found only Hypothesis B (Penn sedge inhibits sugar maple) to be statistically significant. I did not expect students to have the statistical knowledge to arrive at this conclusion (though many also arrived at the same conclusion). They were graded on the ability to make reasonable use of the data in application of the scientific method.
Of the 85 students who submitted the assignment, I found 80% understood it very well, while 20% were somewhat off target either in their analysis or their comprehension. Of those who did well, there was a common analytical error that was initiated by following my hint that they might group the quadrats by percent categories of sedge (such as 0-25%, 26-50%, etc.). After this grouping, many students (n = 23) used total numbers in the % categories for the dependent variables rather than mean number per quadrat. This skewed their analysis because the number of quadrats in each % category varied widely (many quadrats had 0% sedge). In future revisions of the assignment students will be advised to calculate mean numbers per quadrat.
Most of the feedback from students was positive. Several students replied that they enjoyed the assignment and learned from it, while a few said it was too difficult for an introductory course. For example, one e-mailed that it was "fantastic" and that he wants to now minor in natural sciences, while another wrote "very hard and confusing." Although many students commented on the assignment in the classroom or in their reports, only 14 students responded to my anonymous evaluation request. To improve response, the questionnaire might be given earlier or with a small point incentive. (11 of 14 said it helped them understand the scientific method; 10 of 14 said it was appropriate for BIOL 101/103.) Only a handful of students asked for clarification of the instructions.
Student recommendations on improvement worth consideration include scheduling the assignment near the beginning of the course during study of the scientific method. This would also allow more time for the instructor to give feedback on the assignment. Stress would be on the scientific method, but sufficient introduction would need be given on the relevant ecology concepts, as ecology is not covered until the end of the courses. Another suggestion of merit was addition of more photos of the field site.
The assignment is under consideration for recommendation for use in all BIOL 101/103 sections. I have sent a revised draft of the assignment for review by course coordinators, to whom I will also send copies of this report and my PowerPoint presentation. I am looking forward to feedback on how to improve the assignment and hope it can be fashioned to be an effective learning tool in future general biology courses. My conclusion is that the assignment was generally effective in getting the students to grapple with the scientific method using "real world" data. The difficult trick is to fashion the assignment so it is not too much of a challenge to those with math or science anxiety, yet enough of a challenge that they can master it and feel that they have gained in confidence and knowledge.
Data collected under the UMUC Faculty Research Grant will contribute to future publications on sedge effects and on forest demography, as part of research under the protocol followed in ~9 hectares of permanent plots in 5 old-growth white pine-hardwood forests in the Upper Midwest. Copies of these papers will be forwarded when published
[UNAVAILABLE] Developing intercultural competence through online undergraduate instruction: A pre and post test study
No full textTHIS WEBCAST IS NO LONGER AVAILABLE VIA THE LINK.
With the advent of globalization, researchers in higher education have been increasingly interested in the idea of the “internationalization” of education, a concept which encompasses two dimensions: international knowledge and intercultural competence (Stone, 2006). While study abroad programs have emerged as one effort to provide cultural experiences and incorporate intercultural competencies into undergraduate and graduate academic programs, this study investigates distance education as a platform which lends itself to developing global competencies and knowledge. In this study we employed a quasi-experimental research strategy to determine to what extent exposure to the theories, models, research, and practices of intercultural competence, as well as different methods of instruction, change undergraduate students’ levels of intercultural competence. We compared pre and post intervention levels of intercultural competency by using The INCA (Intercultural Competence Assessment) instrument. We also compared the group that used journaling versus the group that did not use journaling as part of their intervention. Initial results will be shared in this seminar
Management innovation adoption in the federal government: Fad, fashion ot strategic intent?
No full textRecent organizational performance studies identified an increase in the adoption of management innovations as more organizations seek to use innovation for competitive advantage. To better understand innovation adoption in the federal government, this study investigated the influence of select environmental, organizational, and individual factors on the adoption of 17 management innovations. Despite an abundance of literature on management innovations in the private sector, there has been little empirical research done to explain the adoption decisions of management innovations in the public sector, especially in the federal government.
This empirical study gathered data from 252 senior federal managers from 44 different executive departments and federal agencies. Statistical analysis confirmed that environmental, organizational, and individual factors influenced the adoption of management innovations. Organizational factors were more salient than environmental or individual factors. Specifically, the results indicated that external pressure, organizational slack, organizational risk-taking, and managerial socialization had positive and statistically significant ( p < .05) influence on the adoption of management innovations. Organizational size and organizational type also had positive and significant influence on management innovation adoption, with defense organizations adopting a greater number than non-defense federal organizations. Innovations were viewed as more successful when they were easier to use, had greater relative advantage, contributed to a positive image, and had higher management commitment.
Management innovation adoption patterns showed increased media attention on the innovations for about two years prior to their adoption by federal organizations. This lag in adoption could occur because federal executives wait to see if a management approach is successful prior to adopting it in their own organizations. Consequently, the adoption of an innovation may also be caused by bandwagon pressure to compete with private companies who have already adopted the innovation. Managers believed that the innovations were mandated, initiated as a result of political leadership changes, and would soon be replaced with something new. According to research by Abrahamson and others, organizations that continually adopt new management innovations may suffer negative consequences, including employee cynicism and reduced return on investment.ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation:
MANAGEMENT INNOVATION ADOPTION IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT: FAD, FASHION OR STRATEGIC INTENT?
Denise Anderson Breckon, Doctor of Management, 2009
Dissertation Directed By:
Dissertation Chair, Dr. Thomas Mierzwa, Doctor of Management
Recent organizational performance studies identified an increase in the adoption of management innovations as more organizations seek to use innovation for competitive advantage. To better understand innovation adoption in the federal government, this study investigated the influence of select environmental, organizational, and individual factors on the adoption of 17 management innovations. Despite an abundance of literature on management innovations in the private sector, there has been little empirical research done to explain the adoption decisions of management innovations in the public sector, especially in the federal government.
This empirical study gathered data from 252 senior federal managers from 44 different executive departments and federal agencies. Statistical analysis confirmed that environmental, organizational, and individual factors influenced the adoption of management innovations. Organizational factors were more salient than environmental or individual factors. Specifically, the results indicated that external pressure, organizational slack, organizational risk-taking, and managerial socialization had positive and statistically significant (p < .05) influence on the adoption of management innovations. Organizational size and organizational type also had positive and significant influence on management innovation adoption, with defense organizations adopting a greater number than non-defense federal organizations. Innovations were viewed as more successful when they were easier to use, had greater relative advantage, contributed to a positive image, and had higher management commitment.
Management innovation adoption patterns showed increased media attention on the innovations for about two years prior to their adoption by federal organizations. This lag in adoption could occur because federal executives wait to see if a management approach is successful prior to adopting it in their own organizations. Consequently, the adoption of an innovation may also be caused by bandwagon pressure to compete with private companies who have already adopted the innovation. Managers believed that the innovations were mandated, initiated as a result of political leadership changes, and would soon be replaced with something new. According to research by Abrahamson and others, organizations that continually adopt new management innovations may suffer negative consequences, including employee cynicism and reduced return on investment.
Key words: management innovation, change management, innovation adoption, management fads, diffusion of innovation, bandwagon.MANAGEMENT INNOVATION ADOPTION IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT: FAD, FASHION OR STRATEGIC INTENT?
By
Denise Anderson Breckon
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Management
2009
Advisory Committee:
Dr. Thomas Mierzwa, Chair
Dr. Garth MacKenzie
Dr. Stella Porto
Dr. Donald Henley© Copyright by
Denise Anderson Breckon
2009ii
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my wonderful parents who gave me a passion for learning and inspired me to reach for the stars. It is also dedicated to two strong women who encouraged me to begin my journey and are unfortunately no longer here with me. My grandmother, Betty Lockett, and my mother-in-law, Judy Breckon, were very influential in my life and believed that I could do anything. Along with my parents, they always told me how proud they were, and their confidence inspired me to set high goals for myself. I know that this dissertation makes them all proud.iii
Acknowledgements
I acknowledge and give thanks to all who have helped make this work possible. It was incredible to be on the receiving end of such generosity.
My God and Savior, who blessed me with the intelligence, determination, and support structure to accomplish this journey.
My parents, Carl and Sis Anderson, and my father-in-law, Dick Breckon, for inspiring me to be all that I could be. Your endless love and belief in me helped me to see that there was nothing beyond my reach.
My husband Michael, for selflessly assuming additional household chores and parenting duties that allowed me to focus on my work. I know how trying I was at times, and your patience with me was nothing short of amazing. Thank you for not letting me give up.
My boys, Taylor, Dallas, and Caleb, who always made me a hot cup of tea, gave me a back rub, and kissed me good-night.
My LPUMC friends and family, who prayed for me, sent me e-mails and cards, and freely showed their love and concern over my well-being. Thanks for the book clubs, scrapbooking and girlfriend time that helped me to relax when I most needed it. I have the best friends in the whole world.
My friends at work, who always checked on my progress and were willing to give their advice on my research. Special thanks to my friends, Al and Pete, who were willing to read through the entire dissertation without any compensation. Your comments were pivotal to the ultimate value of this research. To Janet and MaryAnn, who had already climbed the doctoral path, you encouraged me and inspired me to follow you.
My cohort, whose camaraderie and friendship helped me get through this. Special thanks to Nuray, Suzette, Jerry, Bert, Walter, Ben, Aubrey, Bill, and Ed: I wouldn’t have made it through comps and the dissertation process without you.
My dissertation committee, who guided me through this learning journey. Special thanks to Dr. Mierzwa, who took my raw ideas and helped me shape them into a research topic that I was passionate about. I also want to thank several other prominent innovation researchers: Dr. Abrahamson, Dr. Borins, and Dr. Damanpour, who were willing to share their latest research and provide me with feedback on my research topic. I was honored that all of you took the time to help me. You have inspired me to help others.
My editors, Taylor and Sara, who made my writing look good.
I was so blessed to have all of the support and encouragement that anyone could ever want. Because of all of you, I was able to accomplish one of my dreams. You own part of this.iv
Table of Contents
Dedication...................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................... iii
Table of Contents.......................................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ ii
Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Problem.............................................................................. 1
Background................................................................................................................................ 1
Statement of the Problem............................................................................................................ 5
Significance of the Study............................................................................................................ 6
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions............................................................................ 9
Definition of Terms................................................................................................................... 11
Scope and Design Limitations .................................................................................................. 12
Summary.................................................................................................................................. 12
Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................... 13
Chapter 2: Literature Review........................................................................................................ 14
Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 14
Components of the Literature ................................................................................................... 14
Innovation Theory................................................................................................................. 14
Innovation Adoption ............................................................................................................. 16
Innovation Diffusion............................................................................................................. 17
Innovation and Culture ......................................................................................................... 20
Management Fad and Management Fashion ........................................................................ 21
Bandwagon Diffusion ........................................................................................................... 23
Management Innovations...................................................................................................... 25
Adoption Factors................................................................................................................... 43
Research Propositions from the Literature ............................................................................... 44
Environmental Factors .......................................................................................................... 44
Organizational Factors .......................................................................................................... 47
Individual Factors ................................................................................................................. 52
Innovation Characteristics .................................................................................................... 55
Summary.................................................................................................................................. 59
Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................... 60
Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 60
Theoretical Context................................................................................................................... 60
Conceptual Framework and Hypotheses Development............................................................ 61
Environmental Factors .......................................................................................................... 62
Organizational Factors .......................................................................................................... 65
Individual Factors ................................................................................................................. 68
Innovation Adoption Decision.............................................................................................. 69
Moderating Variables............................................................................................................ 70
Summary.................................................................................................................................. 72
Chapter 4: Research Approach ..................................................................................................... 75v
Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 75
Research Objectives.................................................................................................................. 75
Focus of the Research ............................................................................................................... 76
Instrument ................................................................................................................................ 78
Survey Questionnaire............................................................................................................ 78
Individual Factor Variables................................................................................................... 81
Organizational Factor Variables ........................................................................................... 83
Innovation Characteristic Variables...................................................................................... 87
Dependent Variable .............................................................................................................. 95
Sampling .................................................................................................................................. 98
Ethics in Research..................................................................................................................... 99
Validity and Reliability............................................................................................................. 99
Response Rate......................................................................................................................... 102
Sample Population .................................................................................................................. 103
Summary................................................................................................................................ 106
Chapter 5: Data Analysis and Discussion................................................................................... 107
Introduction............................................................................................................................ 107
Overview of Findings ............................................................................................................. 107
Environmental Factors Summary ....................................................................................... 110
Organizational Factors Summary ....................................................................................... 110
Individual Factors Summary............................................................................................... 113
Environmental, Organizational, and Individual Factors Summary .................................... 115
Innovation Characteristics Factors Summary ..................................................................... 116
Specific Management Innovations Summary ..................................................................... 117
Early Adopters and Laggards.............................................................................................. 120
Statistical Approach................................................................................................................ 120
The Dependent Variable: Innovation Adoption.................................................................. 122
The Independent Variables ................................................................................................. 126
Testing the Influence of Perceived External Pressure on Adoption ....................................... 129
Environmental Factor Attributes......................................................................................... 129
Principal Dimensions of Environmental Factors ................................................................ 130
Findings on the Extent of Influence of Perceived External Pressure on Adoption ............ 131
Testing the Influence of Organizational Factors on Adoption................................................ 132
Organizational Factor Attributes......................................................................................... 132
Principal Dimensions of Organizational Factors ................................................................ 133
Findings on the Extent of Influence of Organizational Bureaucratic Control on Adoption134
Findings on the Extent of Influence of Organizational Risk-Taking on Adoption............. 135
Findings on the Extent of Influence of Organizational Slack Resources on Adoption ...... 136
Findings on the Extent of Influence of Organizational Size on Adoption.......................... 137
Findings on the Extent of Influence of All Organizational Factors on Adoption............... 138
Testing the Influence of Organizational Type on Adoption ................................................... 140
Organizational Type Attributes........................................................................................... 140
Principal Dimensions of Organizational Type.................................................................... 140
Findings on Extent of Influence of Organizational Type on Adoption .............................. 140
Testing the Year of Adoption by Organizational Type .......................................................... 141
Year of Innovation Adoption Attributes ............................................................................. 141vi
Principal Dimensions of Year of Innovation Adoption ...................................................... 143
Findings on the Extent of Influence of Organizational Type on Adoption ........................ 143
Findings on the Life Cycle Profiles of the Management Innovations ................................ 144
Testing the Influence of Individual Factors on Adoption....................................................... 150
Individual Factor Attributes................................................................................................ 150
Principal Dimensions of Individual Factors ....................................................................... 153
Findings on the Extent of Influence of Openness to Innovation ........................................ 154
Managerial Trait Attributes................................................................................................. 154
Principal Dimensions of Managerial Traits ........................................................................ 155
Findings on the Extent of Influence of Managerial Traits on Innovation Adoption .......... 155
Testing the Influence of Managerial Socialization on Adoption............................................ 156
Managerial Socialization Attributes ................................................................................... 156
Principal Dimensions of Managerial Socialization............................................................. 157
Findings on the Extent of Influence of Managerial Socialization ...................................... 158
Findings on the Extent of Infl
The Sacred core: The Upattasanti Pagoda in Myanmar's new capital of Naypyidaw
No full textIn late 2005, Senior General Than Shwe, chairman of the SPDC military junta, decreed the relocation of his country's capital from Yangon (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw, located in the center of Myanmar. The layout and design of the new capital is modern, containing modern buildings which for the most part to not reflect local architectural traditions, and highly de-centered. However, Naypyidaw follows traditional precedents in possessing a "royal pagoda," constructed by Than Shwe between 2006 and 2009, which serves not only as a sacred space for Buddhist devotions but as an assertion of the legitimacy of Than Shwe's regime and Myanmar national identity - as summarized in the phrase "to be Burmese is to be Buddhist."1
The Sacred Core The Sacred Core The Sacred Core : the Upattasanti Pagoda in the Upattasanti Pagoda in the Upattasanti Pagoda in the Upattasanti Pagoda in the Upattasanti Pagoda in the Upattasanti Pagoda in the Upattasanti Pagoda in Myanmar’s New Myanmar’s New Myanmar’s New Myanmar’s New Myanmar’s New Myanmar’s New Myanmar’s New Myanmar’s New Capital of Naypyidaw Capital of Naypyidaw Capital of Naypyidaw Capital of NaypyidawCapital of NaypyidawCapital of Naypyidaw Capital of Naypyidaw
-by -
Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D.Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D.Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D.Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D.Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D.Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D.Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D. Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D. Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D.Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D.Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D.Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D. Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D.Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D.Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D. Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D.
The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon The relocation of the capital Myanmar (Burma) from Yangon (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign (Rangoon) to Naypyidaw in late 2005 surprised both Burmese and foreign observers. observers. observers. observers. observers. 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Yangon has a Zoological Garden, Yangon has a Zoological Garden, Yangon has a Zoological Garden, Yangon has a Zoological Garden, Yangon has a Zoological Garden, Yangon has a Zoological Garden, Yangon has a Zoological Garden, Yangon has a Zoological Garden, Yangon has a Zoological Garden, Yangon has a Zoological Garden, Yangon has a Zoological Garden, Yangon has a Zoological Garden, Yangon has a Zoological Garden, Yangon has a Zoological Garden, Yangon has a Zoological Garden, Yangon has a Zoological Garden, Yangon has a Zoological Garden, Yangon has a Zoological Garden, Yangon has a Zoological Garden, Yangon has a Zoological Garden, built during built during built during built during built during built during built during built during built during the British colonial era, bu the British colonial era, bu the British colonial era, buthe British colonial era, bu the British colonial era, bu the British colonial era, buthe British colonial era, buthe British colonial era, bu the British colonial era, bu the British colonial era, buthe British colonial era, buthe British colonial era, buthe British colonial era, bu the British colonial era, buthe British colonial era, buthe British colonial era, buthe British colonial era, buthe British colonial era, but another t another t another t another zoo was zoo was zoo was set up set up set up in the new in the new in the new in the new in the new in the new
I wish to express my deep thanks the Graduate Research Program of I wish to express my deep thanks the Graduate Research Program of I wish to express my deep thanks the Graduate Research Program of I wish to express my deep thanks the Graduate Research Program of I wish to express my deep thanks the Graduate Research Program of I wish to express my deep thanks the Graduate Research Program of I wish to express my deep tha
Executive succession in state and local governments: An examination of the factors that influence effective leadership transition and positive organizational performance
No full textThis study is focused on investigating the factors that influence successful leadership transitions and positive organizational performance within state and local governments. Frequent leadership changes often disrupt organizational norms and leave employees uncertain about their roles and unclear about how new goals will affect current organizational processes and priorities. The existing academic research argues that new leaders should take the time to understand the contextual factors that lead to greater succession success, and that proactive steps are often required in order to maintain organizational performance during executive successions. This presentation demonstrates how state and local governments can successfully integrate new leadership administrations into power, while reducing organizational disruptions and performance declines.This study is focused on investigating the factors that influence successful leadership transitions and positive organizational performance within state and local governments. Frequent leadership changes often disrupt organizational norms and leave employees uncertain about their roles and unclear about how new goals will affect current organizational processes and priorities. The existing academic research argues that new leaders should take the time to understand the contextual factors that lead to greater succession success, and that proactive steps are often required in order to maintain organizational performance during executive successions. This presentation demonstrates how state and local governments can successfully integrate new leadership administrations into power, while reducing organizational disruptions and performance declines.
1.What are the significant succession factors that new leaders should focus on in their efforts to enhance the leadership transition process within state and local governments?
2.How can new leaders create positive and productive environments within organizations both during and after the executive successions have occurred?
Improperly managed leadership transitions can cause both economic hardships and workforce productivity declines, which are completely avoidable using the right set of management tools. This study seeks to provide academically supported insight into the problems associated with leadership succession, and how state and local governments might reduce the related disruptions, inefficiencies, uncertainty, and performance declines associated with executive succession. The significance of maintaining and ultimately improving operational performance during times of leadership succession makes this research critically important because these negative side effects can be effectively managed. This paper offers viable solutions for avoiding the expected workplace stresses and performance declines associated with leadership transitions in the public sector.
Executive Succession In State and Local Governments: An Examination of the Factors that Influence Effective Leadership Transition and Positive Organizational Performance Edward A. Jenkins, Doctoral Candidate University of Maryland University College Adelphi, MD
Significance of the Study
Methodology
Abstract
Conceptual Framework
In addition to the three-part organizing scheme that make up the S.L.P. Model, the addition of the contingency construct and succession planning construct add value to the research by considering additional factors that play a major role in answering the dissertation research questions.
Conclusions
S.L.P.
Contingency Model
The Succession Event
(Prior to Succession)
The Leadership Impact
(Leader’s Contribution)
The Performance Effect
(Leader’s Contribution)
Research Questions
The University of Maryland University College (UMUC) Doctor of Management program employs the evidence-based research approach in evaluating scholarly work. The systematic review of the academic literature used in this research was gathered through the synthesis of the most relevant research available. Systematic research has become the standard in this regard because it follows a clearly defined set of steps. The systematic review process used to construct this dissertation consisted of the following sequential process:
1.Research question formulation.
2.Targeting academic literature base on the research question.
3.Critical evaluation of the relevant research.
4.Summary of the results.
The organizing scheme used herein is a useful framework for introducing the succession, leadership, and performance (i.e., S.L.P. Contingency Model) model. The organizing scheme was designed to ensure a direct response to the dissertation research questions, and serves as a categorization tool for evaluating the academic literature consulted for this research. Again, the three conceptual segments that make up the S.L.P. Contingency Model of this dissertation are:
•The Succession Event (S)
•The Leadership Impact (L)
•The Performance Effect (P)
Analyses of the Literature
Influencers of Effective Leadership Transition and Positive Organizational Performance
Organizational Performance Outcomes
Senior Leadership Team
Economic Context
Chaos vs. Organized
Leader Oppor- tunities
Leader Charac- teristics
Means & Motives
Budget Priorities
Procedural Reforms
Structural Reforms
Findings
•Each set of organizational circumstances will be different. Therefore, steps taken to correct inefficiencies should be based in the specific circumstances.
•Having a clear succession planning strategy improves organizational performance.
•Internal and external environments have a major influence on performance.
Succession Event Construct
•Reading succession context properly allows for minimal transition disruption.
•Leaders can increase their effectiveness by establishing a good senior management team.
•Performance is enhanced when there are simple organizational structures, clear communications, and effective use of resources.
Leadership Impact Construct
•Performance improves when there are clear process oriented goals and organizational priorities.
•Performance improves when organizations maintain effective succession planning programs.
•Performance is enhanced when organizational learning, effective policies, and programs are continued from one administration to the next.
Performance Effect Construct
•The appropriate leadership orientation is contingent upon making the proper environmental assessment.
•The most effective approach for addressing potentially disruptive forces will be dependent on the individual circumstances.
•Internal and external context have the most significant influence on performance outcomes.
Contingency Construct
•Succession planning is likely the best defense against the organizational disruptions caused by leadership transitions.
•Succession planning programs remove the uncertainty associated with leadership transition.
•Succession planning provides the “emotional grounding” needed to maintain organizational momentum.
Succession Planning Construct
Findings (Cont..)
•Organizational context and a leader’s ability to effectively utilize their various resources can significantly improve the chances of improving the leadership transition process, while maintaining (and improving) positive organizational performance.
Conclusion #1
•C2: The performance of any organization is contingent upon both internal (sp) and external (conflict) contextual environmental factors that influence performance outcomes.
Conclusion #2
Succession Event (1)
Has the succession context been stable?
Leader to continue to support existing organizational teams & goals.
Leader should detach from the previous administration
Yes
Leadership Impact (2) Current performance levels been are good?
Maintain current organiza-tional structure.
Establish succession program and re-evaluate context.
Simplify org. structure and establish succession planning program.
Re-evaluate organizational priorities and ensure proper focus and efficiencies.
Performance Effect (3) Is the organization structure unnecessarily complex?
Improved organizational performance
Decision Process Model
No
Yes
Yes
No
N
A conceptual model of a research design about congruence between environmental turbulence, strategic agressiveness, and general management capability in community colleges
No full textNumerous studies have examined the determinant strategic elements that affect the
performance of organizations. These studies have increasing relevance to community colleges
because of the accelerating pace of change in enrollment, resource availability, leadership
turnover, and demand for service that these institutions are experiencing. The increasing
turbulence of the community college environment is eradicating the managerial gap between notfor-
profit organizations and traditional for-profit enterprises (Bryson, 1995). Recognizing these
environmental changes, community college leaders are finding it necessary to update their
strategic plans in order to better respond to the level and pace of environmental turbulence.
Several studies have concluded that the level of environmental turbulence, managerial
capabilities, and stakeholder identification are key determinants of organizational performance
(Andrews, 1980; Ansoff, Antoniou, & Lewis, 2004; Ansoff & McDonnell, 1990; Chandler,
1972; Hofer & Schendel, 1978; Johnson & Scholes, 2002; Nutt & Backoff, 1992; Steiner, 1969).
These studies suggest that community colleges are operating in turbulent environments where
enrollment growth coupled with resource decline is resulting in the need for tough strategic
decision-making. The complexity of this decision-making is compounded by conflicting
expectations of multiple stakeholders.
This study compared the ranking of various elements of environmental turbulence by
community college leaders and key stakeholders. The identified gaps can be useful for
appropriate leadership capacity at various community colleges.A CONCEPTUAL MODEL…ENVIRONMENTAL TURBULENCE, STRATEGIC
AGGRESSIVENESS, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT CAPABILITY
A CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF A RESEARCH DESIGN ABOUT CONGRUENCE
BETWEEN ENVIRONMENTAL TURBULENCE, STRATEGIC AGGRESSIVENESS,
AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT CAPABILITY IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES
Alfred Lewis
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
Charlene Nunley, Ph.D.
James Tschechtelin, Ed.D.
A CONCEPTUAL MODEL…ENVIRONMENTAL TURBULENCE, STRATEGIC
AGGRESSIVENESS, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT CAPABILITY
ABSTRACT
Numerous studies have examined the determinant strategic elements that affect the
performance of organizations. These studies have increasing relevance to community colleges
because of the accelerating pace of change in enrollment, resource availability, leadership
turnover, and demand for service that these institutions are experiencing. The increasing
turbulence of the community college environment is eradicating the managerial gap between not-for-
profit organizations and traditional for-profit enterprises (Bryson, 1995). Recognizing these
environmental changes, community college leaders are finding it necessary to update their
strategic plans in order to better respond to the level and pace of environmental turbulence.
Several studies have concluded that the level of environmental turbulence, managerial
capabilities, and stakeholder identification are key determinants of organizational performance
(Andrews, 1980; Ansoff, Antoniou, & Lewis, 2004; Ansoff & McDonnell, 1990; Chandler,
1972; Hofer & Schendel, 1978; Johnson & Scholes, 2002; Nutt & Backoff, 1992; Steiner, 1969).
These studies suggest that community colleges are operating in turbulent environments where
enrollment growth coupled with resource decline is resulting in the need for tough strategic
decision-making. The complexity of this decision-making is compounded by conflicting
expectations of multiple stakeholders.
This study compared the ranking of various elements of environmental turbulence by
community college leaders and key stakeholders. The identified gaps can be useful for
appropriate leadership capacity at various community colleges.
A CONCEPTUAL MODEL…ENVIRONMENTAL TURBULENCE, STRATEGIC
AGGRESSIVENESS, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT CAPABILITY
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DEDICATION
The dissertation is dedicated to the pioneers and visionaries
who were instrumental in establishing the community college concept
and to all those who assisted along the way.
To my boys,
Dorrien, Alzier, Matthew, and Christopher,
who have taught me the real meaning of love.
A CONCEPTUAL MODEL…ENVIRONMENTAL TURBULENCE, STRATEGIC
AGGRESSIVENESS, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT CAPABILITY
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Several people have made this dissertation possible because of their dedication,
encouragement, and tireless support. A thousand thanks to Dr. Charlene Nunley, the Director of
the DMCCPA program, for her vision and dedication to see us succeed and make meaningful
contributions to the community college environment.
Many thanks to Dr. James Tschechtelin, my committee member, for his counsel as well
as many challenging classes throughout the program. I am grateful for his constructive feedback,
discipline, and professionalism.
I am grateful to Dr. Patricia Keir for her very engaging classes and genuine interest in the
learning process. To the DMCCPA administrative support staff, especially Monica Graham, for
helping us navigate the administrative dimension of the program.
My gratitude to all the experts who formally provided feedback for this dissertation and
the community colleges who provided responses to the survey instrument.
Finally, I am very thankful to my Cohort 1, 2, and 3 classmates, whose continuous
support and good banter helped to maintain our sanity throughout the journey.
A.L.
A CONCEPTUAL MODEL…ENVIRONMENTAL TURBULENCE, STRATEGIC
AGGRESSIVENESS, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT CAPABILITY
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1
Stakeholders ............................................................................................................. 2
Statement of the Problem ......................................................................................... 4
Statement of Purpose ............................................................................................... 4
Theoretical Base....................................................................................................... 6
Research Questions .................................................................................................. 11
Definition of Terms.................................................................................................. 12
Significance.............................................................................................................. 15
2 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................ 17
Studies in Strategic Management............................................................................. 17
Environment ............................................................................................................. 21
Strategy .................................................................................................................... 25
Capability ................................................................................................................. 27
Community College Strategy Issues ........................................................................ 29
Stakeholders ............................................................................................................. 30
Resource Dependency Theory ........................................................................ 31
Contract Theory .............................................................................................. 33
Institutional Theory ......................................................................................... 33
Network Theory .............................................................................................. 34
Innovation Studies ................................................................................................... 34
Mixed Theory.................................................................................................. 35
Summary .................................................................................................................. 36
3 CONCEPTUAL MODEL ........................................................................................ 37
Conceptual Model Overview ................................................................................... 44
Variables and Relationships ..................................................................................... 44
Independent Variables .................................................................................... 44
Dependent Variable ........................................................................................ 45
Intervening Variables ...................................................................................... 45
Research Questions (Qualitative) ............................................................................ 45
Criteria for the First Data Sources—Community College .............................. 46
Criteria for the Second Data Source—Stakeholders ....................................... 46
Summary .................................................................................................................. 46
A CONCEPTUAL MODEL…ENVIRONMENTAL TURBULENCE, STRATEGIC
AGGRESSIVENESS, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT CAPABILITY
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Chapter
4 RESEARCH METHODS ........................................................................................ 47
Literature Review..................................................................................................... 47
Literature Evaluation ...................................................................................... 47
Research Design....................................................................................................... 53
Proposed Research Hypotheses ............................................................................... 54
Variables and Relationships ..................................................................................... 56
Independent Variables .................................................. 56
Intervening Variables ...................................................................................... 57
Research Questions (Qualitative) ............................................................................ 57
Research Questions (Quantitative) .......................................................................... 58
Research Assumptions ............................................................................................. 59
Delimitations ............................................................................................................ 59
Criteria for Data Sources ......................................................................................... 60
Criteria for the First Data Sources—Community College .............................. 60
Criteria for the Second Data Source—Stakeholders ....................................... 60
Expert Feedback....................................................................................................... 60
5 ANALYSIS .............................................................................................................. 62
Literature Review Analysis...................................................................................... 63
Expert Reviewers ..................................................................................................... 64
Environment-Strategy-Capability Model................................................................. 66
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 72
6 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT ........................ 73
Background .............................................................................................................. 73
Stakeholders ............................................................................................................. 75
Findings and Implications ........................................................................................ 76
Future Research ....................................................................................................... 77
Application of Findings to Managing a Community College .................................. 77
Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 81
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 83
APPENDICES
A Evaluation Form....................................................................................................... 95
B Survey Instrument (Strategic Diagnosis) ................................................................. 96
C Summary Results from Three Community Colleges ............................................. 102
A CONCEPTUAL MODEL…ENVIRONMENTAL TURBULENCE, STRATEGIC
AGGRESSIVENESS, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT CAPABILITY
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LIST OF TABLES
Table
1 Stakeholder Class Attributes ............................................... 10
2 General Management Capability ............................................................................ 13
3 Ansoff’s Environmental Turbulence Levels ........................................................... 15
4 Proposed Firm Actions Towards Stakeholders by the Reviewed Stakeholder
Theories................................................................................................................... 35
5 Sampling of the Studies .......................................................................................... 49
6 Ansoff’s Environmental Turbulence Levels ........................................................... 53
7 General Management Capability ............................................................................ 55
8 Matching Triplets (Turbulence, Strategy, and Capability) ..................................... 67
9 Responsiveness of Capability and Environmental Turbulence .............................. 69
10 Strategic Aggressiveness ........................................................................................ 70
11 Summary Results from Three Community Colleges .............................................. 71
A CONCEPTUAL MODEL…ENVIRONMENTAL TURBULENCE, STRATEGIC
AGGRESSIVENESS, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT CAPABILITY
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1 Stakeholder typology ............................................................................................... 9
2 Strategic stakeholders management model in community colleges (Lewis) ........... 43
A CONCEPTUAL MODEL…ENVIRONMENTAL TURBULENCE, STRATEGIC
AGGRESSIVENESS, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT CAPABILITY
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Numerous studies have examined the determinant strategic elements that affect the
performance of organizations. These studies have increasing relevance to community colleges
because of the accelerating pace of change in enrollment, resource availability, leadership
turnover, and demand for service that are being experienced by these institutions. The increasing
turbulence of the community college environment is eradicating the managerial gap between not-for-
profit organizations and traditional for-profit enterprises (Bryson, 1995). Recognizing these
environmental changes, community college leaders are finding it necessary to update their
strategic plans in order to better respond to the level and pace of environmental turbulence.
Myran (1983) recognizes the challenges faced in college planning:
It is hard to spend time on long-term planning and college development when you are
under daily pressure to deal with a myriad of crises, deadlines…yet there is a growing
sense that a transformation—perhaps one could even call it a revolution—is taking place
in community college management. (p. 9)
He further states that community colleges must transform the management model from
operational to strategic. Bryson (1995) supports Myran’s contention when he states that if
organizations wish to survive, they must act and think strategically. Community colleges, similar
to other educational establishments, gauge performance based on enrollment, resources,
academic quality, and graduation rates along with other measures. The significant growth in
community college enrollment is bringing a new set of challenges to the current economic
environment because growth is occurring at a time when public resources are declining for
community colleges across the country (Fuller, 2010).
A CONCEPTUAL MODEL…ENVIRONMENTAL TURBULENCE, STRATEGIC
AGGRESSIVENESS, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT CAPABILITY
2
Many feel that the significance of community colleges to our nation’s economic well-being
is on the rise. The former Secretary of Commerce and previous CEO of Kellogg has
suggested that community colleges are better suited to tackle educating the workforce because
they are more in sync with responding to emerging dynamics in the environment (Dembicki,
2010). Warren (2006) has also commented on the relevance of community colleges: “community
colleges are better suited and more adaptable to change….” (p. __). In addition to workforce
development, community colleges make major contributions to the community and economic
development. Drury (2001) states that
community colleges, for many reasons, are moving to the forefront of workforce and
community development…. Today’s community colleges offer far more than the
traditional vocational and general education programs of the recent past, yet many still
need to adopt a more market-driven approach to workforce and economic development
programming. (p. 1)
Harman and MacAllum (2003) identified such market-responsive characteristics of
community colleges as: responsiveness to the market; internal responsiveness mechanisms to
adapt rapidly to dynamic workforce demands; rapid response to economic conditions and
retraining demands; and partnering with the community to provide needed skills in the labor
market. Thus, community colleges need to undertake significant internal restructuring to achieve
success, and particular emphasis must be devoted to develop human capital in order to maintain a
competitive advantage in increasingly turbulent environments (Shults, 2008).
Stakeholders
Stakeholder management in the context of strategic management has become more
important in order to lead an organization operating in a discontinuous environment. This
dissertation study is based on Ansoff’s (1990) Strategic Success Paradigm from the work
Implanting Strategic Management.
A CONCEPTUAL MODEL…ENVIRONMENTAL TURBULENCE, STRATEGIC
AGGRESSIVENESS, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT CAPABILITY
3
Several studies have concluded that the level of environmental turbulence, managerial
capabilities, and stakeholder identification are key determinants of organizational performance
(Andrews, 1980; Ansoff, Antoniou, & Lewis, 2004; Ansoff & McDonnell, 1990; Chandler,
1972; Hofer & Schendel, 1978; Johnson & Scholes, 2002; Nutt & Backoff, 1992; Steiner, 1969).
These studies suggest that community colleges are operating in turbulent environments in which
enrollment growth coupled with resource decline is resulting in the need for tough strategic
decision-making. The complexity of this decision-making is compounded by the conflicting
expectations of multiple stakeholders.
Levels of environmental turbulence and uncertainty in the environment have been
utilized extensively to analyze competitive environments (Duncan, 1972; Emery & Trist, 1968;
Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967; Terrebery, 1968). Ansoff (1990) defines turbulence as the combined
measure of the environment’s changeability and predictability. Changeability encompasses the
complexity and novelty of challenges facing the organization, whereas predictability defines the
organization’s visibility of future events and the rapidity of challenges facing the organization.
Several studies provide empirical evidence supporting the superior performance of organizations
whose strategy is aligned with level of environmental turbulence (Ansoff et al., 2004).
Superior leadership coupled with cognitive decision-making skills is vital in the
management of change and particularly during times of increasing environmental turbulence.
Managerial effectiveness in addressing complex issues is dependent on the leadership’s level of
skills, capabilities, and creativity (Hambrick, 1987; Hambrick & Mason, 1984; Norburn &
Birley, 1988). The capability of senior management is paramount in determining the viability of
an organization’s strategic implementation process (Antoniou & Sullivan, 2006; Kaneman,
2003). These studies also highlight the difficulties confronting senior managers in the
A CONCEPTUAL MODEL…ENVIRONMENTAL TURBULENCE, STRATEGIC
AGGRESSIVENESS, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT CAPABILITY
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community college environment. As such, both for- profit firms as well as community colleges
can only achieve success based on their ability to formulate and successfully implement the
appropriate strategy according to level of environmental turbulence.
Statement of the Problem
The problem confronting community colleges centers on managerial response in an
increasingly turbulent environment. In addition to the already complex internal environment,
leaders must manage demands from numerous external stakeholders. At inception, community
colleges were primarily focused on serving the needs of the local community in which they exist.
This focus is consistent with the history and development of this stratum of the educational
segment that was originally created to address multiple needs such as technical tra
Trust and Virtual Teams: The Influence of Leadership Behavior, Communication, and Gender Behavior of Virtual Team Leaders on the Development of Trust in Virtual Teams
No full textThe failure and inability of a virtual team leader to develop trust efficiently and effectively in a virtual environment can lead to an organization’s tasks being unsuccessful, which can adversely disrupt the execution of an organization’s strategic business goals and objectives. The difficulties of selecting the right virtual team leader to develop trust within a virtual team have long been a problem for organizations that seek to encourage the use of virtual teams. In this study, the researcher investigated the influence that leadership behavior, communication, and gender behavior have on a virtual team leader. For a virtual team to be successful, he or she must develop trust quickly among everyone on the team, and the leader must integrate multiple, team members’ behavior and personalities. Existing academic literature clearly supports the proposition that a virtual team leader cannot succeed in leading a team without trust. In addition, the catalyst for developing trust is communication. Trust is a critical component of a successful virtual team; therefore, the team leader must be committed to communicating frequently with his or her team. In this study, the researcher also showed the importance of understanding leadership and communication behavior of a virtual team and the effects of the gender behavior of the leader. A number of factors were identified as having a significant impact on the success of trust development in a virtual team. A virtual team leader must be able to influence the team process, including trust development, to affect team performance and team member satisfaction. Effective communication can exist in the virtual team if the leader embraces both the agentic and communal gender communication behavior.TRUST AND VIRTUAL TEAM
i
Trust and Virtual Teams: The Influence of Leadership Behavior, Communication, and Gender Behavior of Virtual Team Leaders on the Development of Trust in Virtual Teams
By
Oladayo O. Oyeleye
Dissertation submitted the Graduate Faculty of the
University of Maryland University College, in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Management
Submitted to
Dr. G. David Andersen and Dr. Eric Dent
Fall 2013
TRUST AND VIRTUAL TEAM
ii
ABSTRACT
The failure and inability of a virtual team leader to develop trust efficiently and effectively in a virtual environment can lead to an organization’s tasks being unsuccessful, which can adversely disrupt the execution of an organization’s strategic business goals and objectives. The difficulties of selecting the right virtual team leader to develop trust within a virtual team have long been a problem for organizations that seek to encourage the use of virtual teams. In this study, the researcher investigated the influence that leadership behavior, communication, and gender behavior have on a virtual team leader. For a virtual team to be successful, he or she must develop trust quickly among everyone on the team, and the leader must integrate multiple, team members’ behavior and personalities. Existing academic literature clearly supports the proposition that a virtual team leader cannot succeed in leading a team without trust. In addition, the catalyst for developing trust is communication. Trust is a critical component of a successful virtual team; therefore, the team leader must be committed to communicating frequently with his or her team. In this study, the researcher also showed the importance of understanding leadership and communication behavior of a virtual team and the effects of the gender behavior of the leader. A number of factors were identified as having a significant impact on the success of trust development in a virtual team. A virtual team leader must be able to influence the team process, including trust development, to affect team performance and team member satisfaction. Effective communication can exist in the virtual team if the leader embraces both the agentic and communal gender communication behavior.
Keywords: Virtual Team, Trust, Communication, Gender Behavior, Leadership Behavior TRUST AND VIRTUAL TEAM
iii
Dedication
To God be the glory for seeing me through the completion of another life endeavor. I dedicate this dissertation to my patient and understanding wife, Oluyemi, who stood by me night and day throughout the entire period and encouraged me. Her endurance became mine, seeking that I completed this program. To my wonderful children, Elizabeth and Israel, for whom I have sacrificed time with to pursue this degree.
TRUST AND VIRTUAL TEAM
iv
Acknowledgements
Thank you Dr. Andersen and Dr. Dent for the constant feedback, advice, commitment, dedication, and patience that you have both shown in seeing that I completed my dissertation. I appreciate your time and guidance with me, and the knowledge that you have instilled in me throughout the process.
Thank you to the faculty and staff of the University of Maryland University College and to my cohort—Patrick Amadasun, Ernest Peter Aviles, Timothy Beidleman, Bob Bornhofen, Carmen Chambers, Ted Jeong, Thomas Owusu, and Paul Richardson—for always challenging me during the residency and asking me to think more deeply.
Thank you to my family for understanding and support; thank you all. You all have supported and encouraged me throughout this program, thus, may the Almighty Lord also support and encourage you in all your endeavors.
TRUST AND VIRTUAL TEAM
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Table of Contents
Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... x
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... xi
List of Appendices ............................................................................................................ xii
List of Acronyms ............................................................................................................. xiii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1
Background ............................................................................................................. 1
Statement and Significance of the Problem ............................................................ 6
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................... 8
The Research Questions .......................................................................................... 9
Importance to Management .................................................................................... 9
Definition of Terms............................................................................................... 10
Organization of the Study ..................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ........................................................... 14
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 14
Virtual Teams........................................................................................................ 16
Trust in Virtual Teams .......................................................................................... 18
Communication in Virtual Teams ......................................................................... 24
Leadership Behavior in Virtual Teams ................................................................. 27
Research on Gender Based Leadership Behavior in Virtual Teams ..................... 37
Transactional and Transformational Leadership ...................................... 38
Gender Influences ..................................................................................... 40
Research on Performance and Satisfaction in Virtual Teams ............................... 45 TRUST AND VIRTUAL TEAM
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Summary ............................................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER 3: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .............................................................. 50
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 50
Restatement of the Problem and Purpose ............................................................. 50
The Message in the Literature Review ................................................................. 52
Exploration of the Literature Review ....................................................... 53
Four Major Research Content Areas......................................................... 54
The Conceptual Framework: Analysis and Synthesis .......................................... 58
The Conceptual Framework ...................................................................... 58
The Input-Process-Output Model and the Conceptual Framework .......... 60
Summary ............................................................................................................... 62
CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY .................................................................................... 64
Introduction to Methodology ................................................................................ 64
Discussion of Evidence Based Research .............................................................. 65
Discussion of Relevant Scholarly Evidence Tools ............................................. 699
Search of the Databases .......................................................................... 711
Personal Assessment Tool ...................................................................... 722
Emerging Subject, Themes, and Categories ........................................... 755
Reviewing the Research Evidence ............................................................ 78
Presentation and Discussion of the Expert Panel .................................................. 80
Introduction of the Members on the Panel ................................................ 80
Panel Member Feedback ........................................................................... 81
Impact of the Expert Panel Member Contributions .................................. 88
Summary ............................................................................................................... 88 TRUST AND VIRTUAL TEAM
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CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................. 90
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 90
Restatement of the Purpose of the Study .............................................................. 90
Restatement of Research Questions ...................................................................... 91
Presentation of the Findings and Conclusions ...................................................... 91
General Findings and Conclusions on Virtual Teams .......................................... 93
Findings..................................................................................................... 93
Discussion ................................................................................................. 94
Conclusion ................................................................................................ 94
General Findings and Conclusions on Trust in Virtual Teams ............................. 94
Findings..................................................................................................... 94
Discussion ................................................................................................. 96
Conclusion ................................................................................................ 96
Findings and Conclusions from the Research ....................................................... 97
Research Question 1: What leader behavior in a virtual team can influence the development of trust within the virtual team?..................... 97
Research Question 2: How does communication in a virtual team influence trust development within the team? .......................................... 98
Research Question 3: What virtual team leader behavior can influence communication within the team? ............................................ 100
Research Question 4: What role does the gender of a virtual team leader play in influencing communication within the team? .................. 102
Research Question 5: What is the necessary gender behavior that can influence the development of trust in a virtual team? ............................. 105 TRUST AND VIRTUAL TEAM
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General Findings and Conclusions on the Behavior of Virtual Team Leaders and the Team Performance and Staff Satisfaction of the Virtual Team ............. 107
Findings................................................................................................... 107
Discussion ............................................................................................... 108
Conclusions ............................................................................................. 109
Alternative Perspectives...................................................................................... 109
Summary ............................................................................................................. 110
CHAPTER 6: OVERALL CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDY ........................................................ 112
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 112
Overall Conclusion ............................................................................................. 113
Research Question 1: What leader behavior in a virtual team can influence the development of trust within the virtual team?................... 115
Research Question 2: How does communication in a virtual team influence trust development within the team? ........................................ 115
Research Question 3: What virtual team leader behavior can influence communication within the team? ............................................ 116
Research Question 4: What role does the gender of a virtual team leader play in influencing communication within the team? .................. 116
Research Question 5: What is the necessary gender behavior that can influence the development of trust in a virtual team? ............................. 117
Implications for Management ............................................................................. 119
Implications of Trends ........................................................................................ 122
Limitations and Areas for Future Research ........................................................ 124 TRUST AND VIRTUAL TEAM
ix
Summary ............................................................................................................. 127
References ....................................................................................................................... 130
TRUST AND VIRTUAL TEAM
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LIST OF TABLES
1 Five Categories of Behavior Tendencies in Virtual Team Leaders ......................... 35
2 Databases Depicting Management as an Art and as a Science ................................ 71
3 An Inclusion and Exclusion Assessment Tool for the Articles ............................... 73
4 An Overview of the Subject Matter Expert Panel Members ................................... 81
5 Expert Panel Feedback Matrix ................................................................................. 82
TRUST AND VIRTUAL TEAM
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LIST OF FIGURES
1 A Virtual Team Input, Process, and Output (IPO) Model ....................................... 21
2 Content Areas for Understanding the Selection of the Virtual Team Leader. ......... 53
3 Literature Review Themes Converted into Conceptual Framework Model. ........... 59
4 Logical Structure of the Relevant Scholarly Evidence Tools. ................................. 71
5 Organized Scheme of the Top 10 Sample Sizes. ..................................................... 77
6 Triangulation of Virtual Team Leadership. ............................................................. 78
7 Major Conclusions of the Study. ........................................................................... 118
TRUST AND VIRTUAL TEAM
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LIST OF APPENDICES
A Introductory Letter From the UMUC Executive Director of the Doctorate in Management Program ............................................................................................ 144
B A Copy of a Feedback Form Entitled Subject Matter Expert Evaluation and Feedback Form....................................................................................................... 145
C Dr. Mathias Mbah: Subject Matter Expert Evaluation and Feedback Form.......... 146
D Nene Oruche .......................................................................................................... 148
E Dr. Abdul Karim Bangura ...................................................................................... 151
TRUST AND VIRTUAL TEAM
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
IPO – input, process, and output
LPI – Leadership Practice Inventory
SME – subject matter expert
TRUST AND VIRTUAL TEAM
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Background
The potential for an organization to give its customers more time-effective services, including faster product delivery, at a competitive cost in today’s global economy is shown and is being realized through successfully implementing virtual teams. In today’s global market place, customers increasingly demand from organizations better services and products. In turn, this increases the state of competition within similar services and products across industries. This new level of competitiveness has created a dilemma for the global corporate world.
In the early 1990’s, a major issue of concern for organizations was how to attract and retain the best and brightest talented employees. Organizations tried various techniques in hiring highly qualified personnel, including incentives to stimulate the interest of potential candidates to accept offers, offering remote working conditions, and providing significant sign-up bonuses. The financial difficulties that occurred in 2008 because of the global recession forced organizations to rethink how they hire globally for new talent and how to retain skilled labor.
Organizations are now looking for other options in recruiting a new workforce without sustaining significant costs during the recruitment process. They are also looking at newer and more needed organizational structures that match the needs of the organizational, national, and global environments, while addressing long-term, continued staffing issues. Since 2008, organizations have become more efficient and effective in using their human resources in an increasingly strategic manner. Global organizations are currently looking at various options for generating revenue, while staying competitive. These organizations are seeking methods that will enable them to reduce costs, to stay TRUST AND VIRTUAL TEAM
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competitive, to use technology, and to use effectively their workforce to improve excellence in the service as they decrease their operating costs.
Technology is a necessary component of today’s organizational infrastructure. Increasing pressure is being placed on organizations to use technology to remain competitive, to survive, and to thrive in a challenging and competitive environment. Organizations have started using technology to map out different strategic approaches to reduce costs and to increase the efficiencies of their operational processes. According to Zayani (2008), organizations are compelled to seek alternative modes of operations that are more efficient, innovative, and creative (p. 1). Cox (2005) asserted that organizations are shifting gradually by increasingly calling upon their employees to develop ways to solve problems, to make operations more efficient, and to produce goods and services that meet customer needs innovatively and creatively, while gaining and maintaining a competitive advantage.
This operational shift is occurring partly so that organizations can have their employees perform functional tasks by working in teams (Switzer, 2000). As technology advances, companies desire to grow and generate revenue, and organizations are dispersed to global locations, for a paradigm shift is occurring from traditional face-to-face teams toward virtual teams (Allen, 2005; Arnold, 2008; Barelka, 2007; Bell & Kozlowski, 2002; Castle, 2009; Cisse & Wyrick, 2010; Cox, 2005; Dube & Pare, 2002; Guinea, Webster, & Staples, 2005; Hambley, 2005; Karpiscak, 2007; Kirkman, Rosen, Tesluk, & Gibson, 2004; Lipnack & Stamps, 1999; Martins, Gilson, Maynard, 2004; Odiwe, 2009; Piccoli, 2000; Powell, Piccoli, & Ives, 2004; Purvanova & Bono, 2009; Switzer, 2000; Wielkie, 2008; Zayani, 2008). TRUST AND VIRTUAL TEAM
3
The traditional, face-to-face, working environment in an organization is changing. Organizational activities have gradually become global to reduce overhead operational costs and generate revenue. With the continuous change in economy, domestic and foreign organizations have increased their competitive edge and are looking for the means to increase employee satisfaction (Bell & Kozlowski, 2002). Constant changes in the technology sector have simultaneously increased the pace at which organizations react. Organizations are moving faster to recruit top-