University of Maryland University College: UMUC Digital Repository
Not a member yet
6660 research outputs found
Sort by
A model for developing improvements to critical thinking skills across the community college curriculum
No full textSociety is faced with more complex problems than in the past because of rapid advancements in technology. These complex problems require multi-dimensional problem-solving abilities that are consistent with higher-order thinking skills. Bok (2006) posits that over 90% of U.S. faculty members consider critical thinking skills as essential for students to develop at the post-secondary educational level, which will prepare them to be employees in the 21st century.
Implementing a systematic model of critical thinking is challenging because so many different models, definitions, and teaching approaches have been attempted, with little evaluation of their impact. Faculty resistance to learning about critical thinking teaching methodologies is another hurdle that colleges often face. In addition, according to Haas and Keeley (1998), most faculty report it is more important to teach content within the subject area than to implement critical thinking within the curricula; many also place more value on the steps to achieve tenure rather than on participation in training that relates to critical thinking. Twenty-first century educators must embrace the value of critical thinking in the curriculum over that of rote, memorization, and test-based teaching techniques (Paul, 2005).
This dissertation examined the models for critical thinking across the curriculum in State University of New York (SUNY) community colleges. This model includes organizational change and faculty development regarding the inclusion of critical thinking skills across the curriculum to enhance and improve students’ critical thinking abilities.A Model for Developing Improvements to Critical Thinking Skills
Across the Community College Curriculum
A Model for Developing Improvements to Critical Thinking Skills Across the Community College Curriculum
DeShawn N. McGarrity
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of the
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the
Doctor of Management
Degree
Charlene Nunley, Ph.D.
James Tschechtelin, Ed.D. A Model for Developing Improvements to Critical Thinking Skills
Across the Community College Curriculum
ABSTRACT
Society is faced with more complex problems than in the past because of rapid advancements in technology. These complex problems require multi-dimensional problem-solving abilities that are consistent with higher-order thinking skills. Bok (2006) posits that over 90% of U.S. faculty members consider critical thinking skills as essential for students to develop at the post-secondary educational level, which will prepare them to be employees in the 21st century.
Implementing a systematic model of critical thinking is challenging because so many different models, definitions, and teaching approaches have been attempted, with little evaluation of their impact. Faculty resistance to learning about critical thinking teaching methodologies is another hurdle that colleges often face. In addition, according to Haas and Keeley (1998), most faculty report it is more important to teach content within the subject area than to implement critical thinking within the curricula; many also place more value on the steps to achieve tenure rather than on participation in training that relates to critical thinking. Twenty-first century educators must embrace the value of critical thinking in the curriculum over that of rote, memorization, and test-based teaching techniques (Paul, 2005).
This dissertation examined the models for critical thinking across the curriculum in State University of New York (SUNY) community colleges. This model includes organizational change and faculty development regarding the inclusion of critical thinking skills across the curriculum to enhance and improve students’ critical thinking abilities.
A Model for Developing Improvements to Critical Thinking Skills
Across the Community College Curriculum
ii
© COPYRIGHT BY
DeSha DeShaDeShaDeShawn N. McGarritywn N. McGarritywn N. McGarrity wn N. McGarritywn N. McGarritywn N. McGarrity wn N. McGarritywn N. McGarrity 2013
A Model for Developing Improvements to Critical Thinking Skills
Across the Community College Curriculum
iii
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my Mother, Kathryn McGarrity. This dissertation is also dedicated in honor of and in loving memory of my Grandparents, Mr. and Mrs. Asberry (A.B.) Jr. and Thelma McGarrity. To my Mother, Kathryn, you gave me life, and to my Grandparents, Thelma and A.B., you enhanced and nurtured my life as you raised me from the moment I arrived on this earth. Thank you to each of you for being my strong foundation for so many reasons. I would not be where I am today without my three parents.
I have been blessed with inspiring teachers in every educational experience of my life. I lost one of those educators and dear friends while pursuing my doctoral degree. This dissertation is also dedicated in loving memory of my high school teacher, Mr. James C. Newcomb, one half of a dynamic teaching couple.
A Model for Developing Improvements to Critical Thinking Skills
Across the Community College Curriculum
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Pursuing my doctorate at a time of so many responsibilities, changes, and challenges has been a blessing and a tremendous growing and learning experience despite those changes and challenges. I could not have completed this journey without love, support, and inspiration from so many family, friends, colleagues, and people I met while I pursued my doctoral studies. Thank you all!
My love and thanks to my [Big] God sisters; Susie, Jan, Kathy, and Mici for your love, encouragement, and support over the past twenty-four years!
My sincerest gratitude to my Mentor for her support, encouragement, and “helpful pushes” to get this work completed.
My heartfelt thanks to my “Sister Friends,” Rhonda Doerner-Maldanado, Celina Fletcher, Carolyn Taylor-Pinn, and Quiana Ridley, for your humor, your encouragement, and your support throughout this educational experience. I enjoy each of our friendships.
Thank you to the UMUC Cohort 3 Family for support and for cheering me on. When I was accepted into this program, I had no idea I would gain another set of colleagues and friends from across the country. What a marvelous surprise!
This process would not have been as smooth as it has been without the guidance and support of two dynamic faculty members, my dissertation advisors, Dr. Charlene Nunley and Dr. Jim Tschechtelin. Thank you so much for your commitment, motivation, and dedication to my success and assisting me with producing the best work that I could produce! You are both inspirations and you are invaluable to the community college movement. A Model for Developing Improvements to Critical Thinking Skills
Across the Community College Curriculum
v
To my supervisor, Charles A. Rogers, Sr., Associate Director of Residential Life at the University at Albany. During my doctoral studies, you provided me with understanding, cheerleading, and support when doctoral work conflicted with work commitments. You never declined any of my requests to step away from my job to complete my doctoral work during the past three years. For the past seven and a half years, your mentorship, guidance, laughs, and problem-solving have contributed positively to my professional and personal growth and I appreciate your wisdom, “Charles-isms,” and wit.
To Laurie Garafola, Director of the Department of Residential Life at the University at Albany, thank you for your support on this journey. I am grateful to you for your inquiries about my progress while I worked on my doctorate, for always having my best interests at heart professionally, and for recommending me for acceptance into this incredible program.
Thanks to my departmental mentor, Carol Perrin, Senior Associate Director of Residential Life for your advice and for always “Keeping it real.”
Thanks so much to some of the hardest-working and funniest professional staff team that I have worked with over the years for your support and encouragement, particularly on days when I did not feel like being a doctoral student. Thank you to: Colleen Bondi, Jaimee King, Darlene Poirier, and Luke Rumsey. I consider each of you pals and I appreciate each of you.
There are faculty members and administrators from across the country that I (cyber) met during this process. My sincere appreciation to Amy Shew and Dr. Patty Payette, who took time out of their busy schedules to communicate with me via email and provide resources for this dissertation. A Model for Developing Improvements to Critical Thinking Skills
Across the Community College Curriculum
vi
My gratitude to Linda Fontaine, my first editor who worked with me on the early drafts of this project.
A huge thanks to my editor, Dr. Gabriella Oldham, for working with me on this document as it came “down to the wire.” You are amazing!
I am grateful to the subject matter experts from the Capital Region and across the country that took the time to review and evaluate my work.
Also, I want to acknowledge the various State University of New York college faculty and administrators who took the time to interview and provide information about their critical thinking initiatives at their campuses. For the past 21 years, I have been a product of SUNY as a student and as a professional employee. I am proud to be a two-time graduate and an employee of such an excellent and impressive higher education system.
D. N. M.
A Model for Developing Improvements to Critical Thinking Skills
Across the Community College Curriculum
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1
Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................... 1
Statement of Purpose ................................................................................................. 2
Context or Background Related to the Problem ........................................................ 3
Theoretical Base......................................................................................................... 4
Research Questions .................................................................................................... 5
Definition of Terms.................................................................................................... 6
Significance................................................................................................................ 8
Overview of Study ..................................................................................................... 8
2 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................... 11
Critical Thinking ........................................................................................................ 11
Historical Context of Critical Thinking ............................................................... 11
The Value of Critical Thinking ............................................................................ 14
Barriers to Critical Thinking ................................................................................ 14
Definitions of Critical Thinking........................................................................... 15
Critical Thinking Dispositions ............................................................................. 17
Organizational Culture, Faculty Change, and Change ............................................... 18
Faculty Culture..................................................................................................... 18
Faculty attitudes toward the development of skills in critical thinking ......... 19
Change management theories ........................................................................ 19
Creating an Environment in Community Colleges That Facilitates the Development of Critical Thinking Skills ....................................................... 25
Teaching Critical Thinking Skills .............................................................................. 28
Critical Thinking Models: Bloom’s Taxonomy, Nosich, and Chaffee ................ 30
Bloom ............................................................................................................. 30
Nosich ............................................................................................................ 35
Chaffee ........................................................................................................... 36
Critical Thinking Assessment .................................................................................... 37
Faculty Development ........................................................................................... 40
Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 42
3 CONCEPTUAL MODEL .......................................................................................... 43
Key Assumptions of the Model ................................................................................. 43
Problem: Deficient Critical Thinking Skills Among Community College Students . 45
Research Theme 1: Critical Thinking Skills ........................................................ 46
Definitions...................................................................................................... 47
Dispositions.................................................................................................... 49 A Model for Developing Improvements to Critical Thinking Skills
Across the Community College Curriculum
viii
Chapter Research Theme 2: Creating a Community College Environment That 3 Facilitates Development of Critical Thinking Skills ..................................... 52
(cont’d) Research Theme 3: Organizational Culture and Organizational Change ............ 56
Research Theme 4: Teaching Critical Thinking Skills ........................................ 58
Assessment ..................................................................................................... 67
Research Theme 5: Faculty Development ........................................................... 68
Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 70
4 RESEARCH METHODS .......................................................................................... 71
Literature Search Process ........................................................................................... 71
Rationale for Case Study Design ............................................................................... 73
Description of Research Design ................................................................................. 75
Ethical Concerns for Research ................................................................................... 75
Case Selection ............................................................................................................ 76
Overview of the State University of New York (SUNY) .......................................... 78
Data Collection Phase ................................................................................................ 79
Data Ordering Phase .................................................................................................. 80
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................. 80
Construct Validity ...................................................................................................... 81
External Validity ........................................................................................................ 81
Reliability ................................................................................................................... 82
Methodological Assumptions and Key Limitations .................................................. 82
Use of Subject Matter Experts to Review Study ....................................................... 82
Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 84
5 COMPARATIVE CASE STUDY DESCRIPTIONS, RESULTS, AND EXPERT FEEDBACK .............................................................................................. 85
Case Study Description .............................................................................................. 85
Community College A ......................................................................................... 85
History and background ................................................................................. 85
Initiatives to improve the critical thinking of students .................................. 86
Faculty development for critical thinking ...................................................... 87
Organizational culture and organizational change ......................................... 87
Community College B ......................................................................................... 87
History and background ................................................................................. 87
Initiatives to improve the critical thinking of students .................................. 87
Faculty development for critical thinking ...................................................... 88
Organizational culture and organizational change ......................................... 89
Cross-Case Results..................................................................................................... 90
Cross-Case Narrative ........................................................................................... 90
A Model for Developing Improvements to Critical Thinking Skills
Across the Community College Curriculum
ix
Chapter
5 Use of Subject Matter Experts to Review Study ....................................................... 90
(cont’d) Expert Review Comments in Each Question of Evaluation Form ...................... 90
Comments Incorporated into the Research .......................................................... 95
Comments Not Incorporated into the Research ................................................... 95
6 CONCLUSIONS AND MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIOS ...................................... 96
Summary ....................................................................................................................103
Areas for Future Research .........................................................................................103
Selection of Faculty .............................................................................................103
Conclusions ................................................................................................................104
Research Limitations .................................................................................................104
Implications and Recommendations for Future Actions on Critical Thinking
by Community College Leaders ..........................................................................104
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................107
APPENDICES
A Human Subjects Protection Form ..............................................................................125
B Invitation to Participate Email ...................................................................................127
C Letter to Participate for Administrators .....................................................................128
D Case Study Questions ................................................................................................129
E Expert Evaluation Form .............................................................................................130
A Model for Developing Improvements to Critical Thinking Skills
Across the Community College Curriculum
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1 What Were They Thinking? (Facione, 1992) ............................................................ 9
2 Yukl’s Leadership Behavior ...................................................................................... 26
3 Bloom’s Original Taxonomy ..................................................................................... 31
4 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (Krathwohl) ................................................................. 32
5 Verbs Typically Used in Each Process of Bloom’s Taxonomy ................................. 33
6 Chaffee’s Critical Thinking Model and Objectives Applied to Levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy ................................................................................................... 38
7 Critical Thinking Dispositions ................................................................................... 50
8 Kotter’s Change Management Models and Critical Thinking Literature Examples . 59
9 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (Krathwohl) ................................................................. 63
10 Chaffee’s Model of Critical Thinking Applied to Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy ....... 65
11 Bloom’s Taxonomy Common Verbs ......................................................................... 66
12 Thirteen Key Components of a Professional Development Program (Eller, 2004) .. 69
13 Keywords and Research Results ................................................................................ 72
14 Grounded Theory Phases and Steps (Pandit, 1996) ................................................... 77
15 Case Study Comparison ..........................
Achieving the dream: An examination of success factors with a focus cultural change
No full textThis study examines the change process to enhance student persistence and graduation rates in four North Carolina community colleges. Using a qualitative research methodology, Lewin’s change model is presented as a framework to investigate the acceptance and implementation of AtD principles in two community colleges. Processes to enhance student success were also examined at two non-AtD community colleges. The findings for this grounded research provide a rich understanding of the long-term impact of organizational change in AtD and non-AtD community colleges and inform future institutional efforts to improve student persistence to graduation or career-focused certifications.ii
ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation:
ACHIEVING THE DREAM: AN EXAMINATION OF SUCCESS FACTORS WITH A FOCUS ON CULTURAL CHANGE
Cathy D. Cornelius, D.M., 2013
Dissertation Directed By:
Dr. Charlene Nunley and Dr. Mary Ellen Duncan
This study examines the change process to enhance student persistence and graduation rates in four North Carolina community colleges. Using a qualitative research methodology, Lewin’s change model is presented as a framework to investigate the acceptance and implementation of AtD principles in two community colleges. Processes to enhance student success were also examined at two non-AtD community colleges. The findings for this grounded research provide a rich understanding of the long-term impact of organizational change in AtD and non-AtD community colleges and inform future institutional efforts to improve student persistence to graduation or career-focused certifications.
iii
ACHIEVING THE DREAM: AN EXAMINATION OF SUCCESS FACTORS WITH A FOCUS ON CULTURAL CHANGES
By
Cathy D. Cornelius
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland University College, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Management
2013
Advisory Committee:
Dr. Charlene Nunley, Chair
Dr. Mary Ellen Duncan
iv
© Copyright by
Cathy D. Cornelius
2013
v
Dedication
I enthusiastically dedicate this dissertation to my mom, Mrs. Inez Pauline Dalton Reid. Although mom started the journey with me faithfully and strong, she was unable to finish. However, for 96 years I was blessed with her wisdom and exceptional moral values. She will forever be in my heart, and I will always be grateful for her.
The dissertation is also duly dedicated to Dr. Quiester Craig, Dean, School of Business and Economics, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC. For forty years, you led the School of Business with excellence. I am thankful for twenty-five years of your brilliance, leadership, mentorship, impetus, encouragement and altruism to build other leaders. vi
Acknowledgements
To the all wise God, the author and finisher of my faith, be honor and glory forever! Truly I am thankful to God, I am blessed by His faithfulness, His guidance, His love, and His tender mercies.
I would like to express my most sincere gratitude to my wonderful husband for his love and support during this journey, particularly for time and space to complete the research. To my son, DeShon, my sisters Paula and Sheila, and my brother James, you know how much I love and appreciate you! The encouragement and support continues to sustain me.
To my mentor and very dear friend, Dr. Wanda F. Lester, I am forever grateful for your love, wisdom, humor, encouragement, chastisement, and editing skills. I could never repay you, so I am asking God to bless you exceedingly and abundantly above all you could ever ask or think.
I would like to thank the faculty and staff at the University of Maryland University College for your consummate professionalism. To my dissertation committee, Dr. Charlene Nunley and Dr. Mary Ellen Duncan, the leadership, commitment, guidance and support to the entire cohort was exceptional. Thank you for the opportunity and the challenge to reach beyond my potential. vii
Table of Contents
Dedication .......................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ ix
List of Figures .................................................................................................................................x
Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................................1
Statement of Purpose ...................................................................................................................4
Context and Background Information .........................................................................................4
Theoretical Base ..........................................................................................................................7
Research Questions ......................................................................................................................8
Significance of the Study .............................................................................................................9
Definition of Terms ...................................................................................................................10
Chapter 2: Literature Review .........................................................................................................13
Achieving the Dream Initiative ..................................................................................................13
Motivation for AtD Formation ..................................................................................................16
AtD Organizational Design and Principles ................................................................................18
AtD Principle—Committed Leadership ................................................................................19
Principle 2—Use of evidence ................................................................................................20
Principle 3—Broad engagement ............................................................................................22
Principle 4—Systemic institutional improvement .................................................................23
AtD in North Carolina ...............................................................................................................25
Organizational Culture and Change ...........................................................................................29
Chapter 3: Conceptual Model ........................................................................................................37
UNFREEZING—The AtD Initiative: Changing an Existing Culture .......................................37
MOVING—Leadership, Engagement, and Transparency .........................................................41
REFREEZING—Institutionalizing AtD Principles to Drive Student Success ..........................44
Chapter 4: Methodology ................................................................................................................50
Introduction ...............................................................................................................................50
Research Design ........................................................................................................................50
Participants ................................................................................................................................51
Data Collection and Analysis ....................................................................................................53
Methods of Selecting Scholarly Research .................................................................................56
Panel of experts ......................................................................................................................59
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................61
Chapter 5: Analysis and Discussion ..............................................................................................62
Analysis of Reviews by Subject Matter Experts .......................................................................62
Integration of Research Questions and Conceptual Model .......................................................66
Focus Group Participants and Structure ....................................................................................68
Focus Group Data Findings .......................................................................................................70
AtD faculty and administrators ..............................................................................................70
Non-AtD faculty and administrators ......................................................................................74 viii
Student Focus Groups ................................................................................................................78
AtD student focus group ........................................................................................................79
Non-AtD student focus group ................................................................................................79
Presidential Interviews ...............................................................................................................84
Cultural change ......................................................................................................................84
Top leadership support and resource allocation .....................................................................85
Internal and external collaboration ........................................................................................87
Analysis and Discussion ............................................................................................................88
Faculty and administrators .....................................................................................................89
Students .................................................................................................................................90
Presidents ...............................................................................................................................90
Chapter 6: Implications for Practice, Areas for Future Research, and Final
Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................92
Overview of Study .....................................................................................................................92
Summary of the Findings ...........................................................................................................92
Limitations of the Study ............................................................................................................95
Recommendations for Future Research .....................................................................................96
Final Conclusion ........................................................................................................................97
Appendices ....................................................................................................................................99
References ...................................................................................................................................108
ix
List of Tables
Table 1. NC Jobs and Earnings by Required Education (Est. 2007 and 2017) ............................27
Table 2. Summary Report on Performance Measures, 2007-2008 North
Carolina ...........................................................................................................................29
Table 3. A Framework for Organizational Culture .......................................................................35
Table 4. Key Subject Areas and Databases ...................................................................................57
Table 5. Analyses of Critical Authors ...........................................................................................57
Table 6. Research Questions and Conceptual Model Integration .................................................67
Table 7. Focus Group Participants ................................................................................................69 x
List of Figures
Figure 1. The Impact of Achieving the Dream: An Examination of Success
Factors with a Focus on Cultural Change .....................................................................38
Figure 2. Impact of Achieving the Dream ....................................................................................49
Figure 3. 2010–2011 Community College Enrollments by Race/Ethnicity and
Gender ...........................................................................................................................52
Figure 4. Four-year Retention Rates by Community College ......................................................53 1
Chapter 1: Introduction
Community colleges in America face a troubling challenge that is still in search of a solution for first-year students attending their institutions. A number of students attending these institutions are not continuing in the academic program, and others continue intermittently, and often fail to earn a certificate or degree even after six years of matriculation (American Association of Community Colleges [AACC], 2012). The Business Higher Education Forum (BHEF), an organization comprised of academic and business leaders, has been a vocal advocate for improvements in the college readiness of students in K-12, and enhancements in the study of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (Business Higher Education Forum, 2012). The concern of this group rests on ensuring the global competitiveness of America’s secondary and post-secondary schools. Members of BHEF recognize that today’s competitive work environment requires that individuals have the competencies and skills to be adept in problem solving, critical thinking, and excellent verbal and written communication skills. Smith (2004) called the educational problem confronting America’s youth, and especially low-income students and those students of color, a “quiet crisis” (p. 123). The open door admissions policy of the approximately 1,200 community colleges that serve nearly half of the country’s college students place these institutions on the front lines in educating the nation’s future workforce (Bragg, Kim, & Barnett, 2006).
Statement of the Problem
Community colleges have evolved over the twentieth century as institutions of higher education with a mission focused on providing students affordable access to postsecondary education (Cohen & Brawer, 2003). Through low-cost public support, open enrollment, and remedial courses to supplement a student’s lack of college readiness, most community colleges 2
have succeeded in providing affordable educational opportunities despite long-standing barriers to post-secondary education (Pusser & Levin, 2009). However, the nation’s increasing need for globally competitive workers’ demands that community colleges monitor far more than just access to education—students’ continuous persistence toward attaining a degree or certification have now become the measure of community college success. The Achieving the Dream (AtD) Initiative began in 2004 as a national program for increasing the success of community college students, with a particular focus on those of low-income and students of color. Although AtD is a widely-respected program, qualitative and quantitative research studies find conflicting results relative to the influence of the program’s principles as they relate to student success among those community colleges selected to participate in the program. A secondary concern relates to the ability to scale the program to non-participating community colleges in the similar regions.
When community college success is measured by outcome data such as student persistence and graduation rates, the results reveal a mixed view of success (Bragg et al., 2006; NCCC, 2008; Bueschel, 2009). Osterman (2010) states that “the majority of students who enter community college do not succeed and this failure comes at a great cost to them and to society” (p. 3). Bueschel (2009) suggests that community colleges open-enrollment admission policies position them to become victims of their success. In welcoming all students, community colleges also open their doors to students who are not adequately prepared for requirements of postsecondary education, and some who may not understand the requirements for success in this academic environment (Bueschel, 2009). Community colleges are serving increasing numbers of students, including some identified as having academic challenges (NCCC, 2008). Additionally, many states fund community colleges at high-school rates or slightly above, resulting in inadequate resources for appropriate student monitoring and assessment (NCCC, 2008). Without 3
critical competency measures, many colleges lacked the data upon which to make effective program improvement decisions.
In the 1980s, higher education as a discipline was forced toward more data collection, as the interests of major governmental and private funding agencies shifted from the dominant educational model of “growth and access” to a model that emphasized program assessment and accountability (Gaither, Nedwek, & Neal, 1994). Motivated by funding and accreditation mandates, various measures have been implemented within higher education to achieve continuous improvement in program effectiveness. Despite the broad-based, holistic support, some participating community colleges continue to face challenges with respect to both the process of data gathering, and creation and/or enhancement of an evidence-based, decision-making culture. These institutions continue to underachieve expected standards related to student program completion. Other institutions unrelated to the AtD initiative also appear to be progressing toward changes that encourage student persistence and degree or certification attainment. The problem is that community colleges are being exhorted to dramatically increase the progress, academic success, and degree completion of their students. This demanding undertaking cannot be achieved simply through the creation of discrete programmatic change. McClenney and McClenney (2010) address this matter of student success as one that demands “visible, persistent leadership” at the levels of the president and the boards of trustees. Moving institutions grounded in a mission of providing postsecondary student access to the communities they serve must now maintain focus while simultaneously engaging in practices that equally advance student persistence and program completion. Further, the new culture that embraces processes for student success must not rely on anecdotal inferences, but must be anchored instead on evidence based decision making approaches. The challenge of changing 4
organizational culture is complex and is a daunting problem that leaders at both Achieving the Dream and non-Achieving the Dream colleges are facing at the present time.
Statement of Purpose
The overarching purpose of this study is to examine the change processes implemented by AtD and non-AtD community colleges to create an evidence-based culture committed to student success. The study focuses specifically on the principles of the AtD initiative, as a change model, and the application of these principles at the four North Carolina community colleges. The study serves several purposes including: (1) to describe what leadership factors positively influence cultural change to an institution where student success is embedded in institutional processes and practices; (2) to describe the impact of increased faculty and staff engagement on student success rates; (3) to describe how the culture has evolved in the use of institutional data to guide decision making related to student success; and (4) to determine whether there are differences in the way AtD and non-AtD colleges have approached the cultural change process related to student success.
Context and Background Information
At every academic level—secondary, post-secondary, and graduate degree programs—American students are shown to be falling behind students in other developed nations with respect to academic preparation and competencies attained to achieve at the next level of proficiency (The College Board, 2008). This lack of competent skills among today’s students harms their ability to build a sustainable economic livelihood. Schneider and Yin (2012) further note that failure to complete college also “lowers wages throughout the course of their lives” (p. 1). The U. S. Census shows that students who graduate from high school earn 2,000 more than
Effective Strategic Planning for Community Colleges Founded Upon Transformational Management Theory
No full textThe transformational management philosophy creates a culture that has purpose, moral standards, and high achievement outcomes (Yukl, 2006). The primary focus of transformational management theory is to be humane, while exhibiting behavioral characteristics of kindness, care, compassion, and principled centeredness (ethical disposition) designed to mitigate issues of institutional turbulence, while promoting organizational change. The author of this study explored the following questions within two community colleges and one community college system: (1) In the community college, what is the organizational culture of evidence found concerning institutional common vision, collegial relations, inclusive discourse, caring culture, pedagogy leadership, and sustainability planning? And, (2) what would be the implications concerning the usage of Transformational Management Theory (TMT) during the strategic planning organizational decision-making process? The subsequent essential strategies were used to collect, analyze, and synthesize the findings related to effective strategic planning for community colleges, founded upon transformational management theory: a) Secondary Data Collection Approach (official documents and archived research data), b) Criteria of Soundness (credibility, transferability, dependability, confirmability, and utilization/application/action orientation), c) TMT Inventory (an assessment document used to evaluate community college strategic planning data), and d) Trustworthiness (researcher-as-detective, rule out alternative explanations, extended fieldwork, and triangulation). Overall, the TMT findings yield that Valencia Community College Strategic Plan 2008-2013 and California Community Colleges Advancing Student Success in the California Community Colleges Plan exhibited significant evidence concerning institutional common vision, collegial relations, inclusive discourse, caring culture, pedagogy leadership, and sustainability planning. Whereas, Brookdale Community College The Jubilee Strategic Plan 2013-2017 produced less substantial evidence concerning the TMT principles. In general, the implication is that transformational management theory as a systems change process provides the 21st Century community college with a humanistic transformative management strategy designed to govern institutional effectiveness.Transformational Management Theory
i
Effective Strategic Planning for Community Colleges Founded Upon Transformational Management Theory
OSCAR JOSEPH III
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management in Community College Policy and Administration
Michael A. Evanchik, Ph.D., Faculty
Mary Ellen Duncan, Ph.D., Faculty
December 12, 2012
Transformational Management Theory
ii
Abstract
The transformational management philosophy creates a culture that has purpose, moral standards, and high achievement outcomes (Yukl, 2006). The primary focus of transformational management theory is to be humane, while exhibiting behavioral characteristics of kindness, care, compassion, and principled centeredness (ethical disposition) designed to mitigate issues of institutional turbulence, while promoting organizational change. The author of this study explored the following questions within two community colleges and one community college system: (1) In the community college, what is the organizational culture of evidence found concerning institutional common vision, collegial relations, inclusive discourse, caring culture, pedagogy leadership, and sustainability planning? And, (2) what would be the implications concerning the usage of Transformational Management Theory (TMT) during the strategic planning organizational decision-making process? The subsequent essential strategies were used to collect, analyze, and synthesize the findings related to effective strategic planning for community colleges, founded upon transformational management theory: a) Secondary Data Collection Approach (official documents and archived research data), b) Criteria of Soundness (credibility, transferability, dependability, confirmability, and utilization/application/action orientation), c) TMT Inventory (an assessment document used to evaluate community college strategic planning data), and d) Trustworthiness (researcher-as-detective, rule out alternative explanations, extended fieldwork, and triangulation). Overall, the TMT findings yield that Valencia Community College Strategic Plan 2008-2013 and California Community Colleges Advancing Student Success in the California Community Colleges Plan exhibited significant evidence concerning institutional common vision, collegial relations, inclusive discourse, caring culture, pedagogy leadership, and sustainability planning. Whereas, Brookdale Community College The Jubilee Strategic Plan 2013-2017 produced less substantial evidence concerning the TMT principles. In general, the implication is that transformational management theory as a systems change process provides the 21st Century community college with a humanistic transformative management strategy designed to govern institutional effectiveness.
Transformational Management Theory
iii
Dedication
I would like to dedicate this work to my daughter Auburn S. Joseph who truly represents the best of me.
Love, Dad
Transformational Management Theory
iv
Acknowledgements
I would like to especially thank Dr. Michael Evanchik, Dr. Mary Ellen Duncan, Dr. Charlene Nunley, and all my DMCCPA professors for their unconditional service towards academic excellence, scholarship, and research. Finally, I want to thoughtfully acknowledge my think partners Dr. Felicia Patterson and DMCCPA cohort 3 members for all their gracious hours of critical dialogue.
Transformational Management Theory
v
Table of Contents
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………... ii
Dedication………………………………………………………………………………. iii
Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………...... iv
Introduction: Transformational Management Theory (TMT)
Community Colleges {1901}……………………………………………………. 1
Community College Four Generations of Leadership …………………………. 5
The Community College Crisis ………………………………………………… 6
Leadership Theories {framework}……………………………………………... 7
Organizational Change and Management ……………………………………… 7
TMT Coliseum {concept}……………………………………………………… 9
Community College Strategic Planning………………………………………... 9
Problem Statement ……………………………………………………………... 11
Literature Review: Transformational Management Theory and Practice
Community College Turbulence and Mission………………………………….. 14
Definition(s) of Leadership…………………………………………………....... 15
Leadership Theories {assumptions}....................................................….............. 16
Community College Management Change…….……………………………….. 22
Community College Strategic Planning………………………………………... 22
Conceptual Model: TMT Coliseum (The House)
Conceptual Frameworks {defined}……………………………………………... 25
TMT Coliseum Eleven Constructs …………………………………………….. 25
The TMT Coliseum……………………………………………………………... 27
Underground Turbulence: Community College Massive Change……………… 28
Building First Step: Community College Mission……………………………… 29
Building Second Step: Transformational Theory Philosophical Assumptions… 30
Pillar {core value}: Common Vision…………………………………………... 31
Pillar {core value}: Collegial Relations………………………………………... 32
Pillar {core value}: Caring Culture…………………………………………….. 33
Pillar {core value}: Inclusive Discourse………………………………………... 34
Pillar {core value}: Pedagogy Leadership…………………………………….... 35
Pillar {core value}: Sustainability Planning……………………………………. 36
Building Cover Base: Transformational Management Theory………………… 36
Building Covering: Strategic Planning…………………………………………. 37
The TMT Propositions ………………………………………………………..... 38
Methods…………………………………………………………………………………. 44
Findings…………………………………………………………………………………. 56
Management Implications………………………………………………………………. 75
References…………………………………………………………………..................... 86
Appendix………………………………………………………………………………... 98Transformational Management Theory
1
“Philosophy begins in wonder. And, at the end, when philosophical thought has done its best, the wonder remains.”
Alfred North Whitehead, Modes of Thought (1938)
Chapter I
Introduction
In 1901, community colleges began their maiden voyage into the academic sea of higher education. The community college mission was clear, thoughtful, and intentional: aimed to provide academic access for all, anytime, anywhere—a place where people of various backgrounds, cultures, experiences, and creeds could join together for the opportunity to receive a quality higher education. Nearly a half a century ago, the philosophy of open-access became the foundation for all community colleges (Ingram & Morrissey, 2009). Vaughan (1985), cited in Ingram and Morrissey (2009), suggests that open-access became the necessary condition for attaining the right of entry to education for all citizens. The open access agenda has been fashioned by numerous critical policies such as the Truman Commission and Carnegie Commission on Higher Education reports (Bragg, 2001). In 1988, the Commission on the Future of Community Colleges offered an expansive vision of open-door policies signifying a comprehensive integration and collaboration towards openness, integrity, inclusiveness, and self-renewal of the whole community (Bragg, 2001).
Nunley and O’Keefe (2007) declare that community colleges are places of ―first, second and third chances…for the purpose of contributing to a greater good‖ (p. 5). Nunley and O’Keefe’s (2007) point suggest that community colleges are pathways of new beginnings, self-worth, personal growth, and service towards others within the greater community. Townsend and Transformational Management Theory
2
Twombly (2001) report that American community colleges began as neighborhood schools. By the 1960’s, community colleges mushroomed across our nation with 50 new colleges opening each year (Townsend & Twombly, 2001). The early pioneers of the community college statewide movement included California, Florida, Illinois, Michigan, and North Carolina (Townsend & Twombly, 2001). Community colleges became institutions accredited to award the associate degree as its highest degree (Townsend & Twombly, 2001).
The contributions of community colleges have influenced and reshaped our society. Hanson (2006) argues that community colleges today do not exist primarily for the sake of academic development; they exist to ensure that citizens have the competence to act as full contributors in our American democracy. Community colleges as institutions of higher learning have an obligation to teach students the importance of service for a higher purpose (Hanson, 2006). Community colleges can function as reminders that selflessness and social responsibility are necessary for the well-being and productivity of a democratic community (Hanson, 2006). To this point the community college has a responsibility to encourage, support, and educate the students and/or communities they serve (Lang, 2006).
Kane and Rouse (1999) contend that community colleges have assumed a major role in our nation’s education and training system. Community colleges have the burden of meeting the 21st century workforce needs by preparing a highly skilled qualified labor force (Erwin, 2005, cited in Katsinas & Palmer, 2005). In 2009, President Obama launched the American Graduation Initiative (AGI), which charged community colleges with the task of regaining the United States’ prowess concerning international competitiveness and college attainment (Baime, 2011). According to Ewell (2011), community colleges will be responsible for 60% of our nation’s degree attainment goal (by 2025). Ewell’s (2011) assertion suggests that community Transformational Management Theory
3
colleges must be thoughtful concerning the selection of effective strategies and/or approaches that will provide a significant return related to student success. As the new generation of accountability, advocacy, and advancement emerges, our community college must accept the American Association of Community Colleges (AACC) national call to action. AACC has adopted a call to action that commits leading community college organizations to improve completion rates for all students (Baime, 2011). Nationwide initiatives and/or legislative actions, such as Achieving the Dream (AtD), Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs (GEAR UP), TRIO, and the Higher Education Opportunity Act (HEOA) have all made significant gains regarding the community college completion and/or equity agenda. In general, community colleges should develop innovative policies, orientation programs, transitional bridge plans, freshmen seminars, mentoring strategies, and multifaceted systems to meet current community college accountability, advocacy, and advancement challenges.
To achieve the goals of 2025, Bueschel (2009) suggests that community college’s will require college-level changes regarding instruction, access to student services, financial aid resources, student progress monitoring, organizational policies, multilevel collaborations, and the community college mission. The current community college multiple mission is one of access/equity, transfer, and completion. According to Boggs (2009), students attend the community college for a myriad of reasons, purposes, and outcomes. ―Some enroll to prepare for a career; others attend for a single course to upgrade a specific job skill, perhaps to earn a promotion; others seek a baccalaureate by completing their lower-division courses at a community college and transferring to a four-year college or university‖ (Boggs, 2009, p 10).
Transformational Management Theory
4
The community college mission drives academic practice, systems of engagement, and philosophical assumptions. Abelmen and Dalessandro (2008) maintain that a community college’s institutional vision is the means by which goal objectives are identified, stakeholder commitments are reinforced, and college-wide expectations are confirmed. Community colleges develop institutional visions with consistent themes across a dual focus: (1) formal educational programming, and (2) the intersection point between the institution and the community it serves (Abelmen & Dalessandro, 2008). The comprehensive articulation of a shared vision and clarity of purpose are essential elements concerning community college accountability, advocacy, and effectiveness (Abelmen & Dalessandro, 2008). A well-conceived vision has the capacity to inspire, motivate, and encourage those within an institution. The vision statement, when shared by all critical stakeholders, could serve as a promotional, guiding, governing document (Abelmen & Dalessandro, 2008). Overall, the community college leader must champion the institution-wide vision.
The community college executive leader nurtures, cultivates, and governs the college mission, vision, and core values. Eddy (2010) contends that community college presidents when communicating strategies for change among various stakeholder groups illustrate their meaning through visionary framing (emphasizing future possibilities), step-by-step framing (emphasizing the immediate next steps required to achieve institutional goals), or connective framing (emphasizing dialogue and collaborative learning). The data for this study was based on findings from nine community college visits. Eddy (2010) uses hermeneutic strategies, semi-structured interviews, and sense-making analysis to determine how college presidents communicate messages regarding change on campus and how stakeholder groups perceive the presidents' Transformational Management Theory
5
framing of new initiatives. This work suggests that the president sets the tone for institutional change through selected communication styles, methods, and strategies (Eddy, 2010).
During ten decades of academic service, the community college academy has experienced four generations of leadership. Sullivan (2001) contends that there are four generations of community college president leadership styles: founding fathers, good managers, collaborators, and the millennium generation. The ―founding fathers‖ generation provided the foundation of a traditional leadership style within a hierarchical organizational structure (Sullivan, 2001). The ―good managers‖ generation led the community college movement through a season of rapid growth and ample resources (Sullivan, 2001). The ―collaborators‖ generation demonstrated the unique ability to develop partnerships with various constituency groups to leverage scarce resources and create higher education access for all (Sullivan, 2001). The ―millennium‖ generation, our emerging cohort of leaders, exhibits traits of comprehensive vision, confidence, courage, integrity, technical skills, persistence, good decision-making, and the ability to collaborate with others (Sullivan, 2001).
To gauge and analyze the leadership styles of the community college presidential generations, Sullivan (2001), used the framework developed by Bolman and Deal (1991) which identified four frames of leadership: structural, human resources, political, and symbolic. Sullivan’s (2001) findings suggest that millennium leaders are intentionally being trained for top leadership positions, more so than any previous generation. The fourth-generation leaders appear to be advanced, more sophisticated, and knowledgeable than their predecessors. The implication of this study is that the millennium leaders will be equipped to address the future challenges confronting community colleges and to provide strong leadership to ensure that community colleges become institutions of choice for higher learning. Transformational Management Theory
6
Plinske and Packard (2010) stated that the most critical characteristics, competencies, and professional experiences essential for community college presidents to possess are: (1) passion for education, (2) good moral character, (3) strong communication skills, (4) a master's degree, (5) dependability, (6) good listening skills (7) the ability to establish trust, (8) the ability to work well within a team, and (9) vision. This study used the Delphi analysis to explore core beliefs of experienced community college trustees in the state of Illinois concerning their desired qualifications for community college presidents. The essential questions explored were: ―(1) what characteristics are critical for future community college presidents to exhibit? (2) What competencies are critical for future community college presidents to demonstrate? And (3) what professional experiences are critical for future community college presidents to possess?‖ (Plinske & Packard, 2010, p. 296). As a result of this study, boards of trustees can use the findings as a means for thoughtful discussion concerning the ideal presidential candidate and identify the potential challenges of a new president while establishing professional development opportunities to ensure institutional success.
Historically, community colleges have celebrated institutional success concerning student academic access, student engagement, and student completion. However, as community colleges journey into the next century, they will undergo tremendous organizational culture change. Community colleges are currently facing a barrage of institutional turbulence in relation to student demographics, high-stakes accountability, operational budgets, public policy, faculty/staff retirements, technological developments, leadership styles, course instruction, college-level learning outcomes, benchmark assessments, and strategic planning (Walker & McPhail, 2009; Colyer & Seeger, 2007; Eddy & VanDerlinden, 2006; Sullivan, 2001; Peterson et al, 1997). As a result, community college executive leaders must now find new innovative, Transformational Management Theory
7
suitable, and sustainable ways of institutional effectiveness regarding student engagement, economic growth, pedagogy, staff development, ethical strategic decision-making, and organizational management. The community college exterior and/or interior turbulence has created systemic cultural changes.
The community college institutional external and internal challenges have stimulated a paradigm shift in management theory and strategic visioning concerning college wellness. Community colleges that achieve a state of wellness are able to surpass constituent expectations by providing excellent value, thoroughly leveraging resources and competencies, and proactively addressing emergent environmental challenges (Shults, 2008). The leadership theories that seem to provide valuable organizational routines that transform an institution are spiritual leadership, ethical leadership, reverence leadership, and transformative leadership. These leadership theories and models can be classified as: trait theories, behavioral theories, contingency theories, power and influence theories, cultural and symbolic theories, and cognitive theories (Eddy & VanDerLinden, 2006; Kezar, Carducci, and Conteras-McGavin, 2006).
A community college's success is anchored on its ability to undergo significant organizational change with the purpose of addressing the diverse needs of the communities it serves (McKinney & Morris, 2010). McKinney and Morris (2010) contend that organizational change can be defined as the revision of organizational purposes and processes. Community colleges as a complex entity, in order to meet its mission and continue to be effective, must cope with various stable and/or unstable emerging and often unforeseen uncertainties. Uncertainty denotes the inability for decision-make
Healthcare reform: Innovative and other proven strategies for successfully managing and implementing organizational change
No full textThe purpose of this study was to provide innovative and other proven change strategies that assist the healthcare industry and healthcare organizations with implementing organizational change. Evidence shows that healthcare spending in the United States grew ten times the base rate in 1980 from 2.6 trillion in 2010 (Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, 2012). Compounding this problem is the limited availability to patient care and the diminishing value of care. The U. S. healthcare industry cannot survive under these circumstances without changing the overall system. In order for healthcare organizations to survive, they must embrace innovative and other proven strategies to remain competitive.
Through examining healthcare trends, healthcare innovation, and organizational change theory, this dissertation found that various tools, best practices, and strategies exist that will aid U.S. healthcare organizations with the impending healthcare reform. By using an evRunning Head: HEALTHCARE REFORM: STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING CHANGE
Healthcare Reform: Innovative and Other Proven Strategies for Successfully Managing and Implementing Organizational Change
University of Maryland University College
Lisa M. Pinkney
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
G. David Andersen, Ed.D. Eric Dent, Ph.D.
Healthcare Reform: Strategies For Managing Change 2
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to provide innovative and other proven change strategies that assist the healthcare industry and healthcare organizations with implementing organizational change. Evidence shows that healthcare spending in the United States grew ten times the base rate in 1980 from 2.6 trillion in 2010 (Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, 2012). Compounding this problem is the limited availability to patient care and the diminishing value of care. The U. S. healthcare industry cannot survive under these circumstances without changing the overall system. In order for healthcare organizations to survive, they must embrace innovative and other proven strategies to remain competitive.
Through examining healthcare trends, healthcare innovation, and organizational change theory, this dissertation found that various tools, best practices, and strategies exist that will aid U.S. healthcare organizations with the impending healthcare reform. By using an evidence-based research methodology approach, this study identified change strategies for healthcare organizations and the healthcare industry to use to adequately manage organizational change. The dissertation concluded with strategies such as information technology, use of incentives, and best practices. These proven strategies will assist healthcare organizations when undergoing organizational change and that may serve to lessen the burden of healthcare cost, increase accessibility to care, and provide better quality healthcare.
Key Words: healthcare reform, organizational change, innovation, healthcare change, healthcare management, innovative strategies, innovation and healthcare, and change strategiesHealthcare Reform: Strategies For Managing Change 3
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my mother, Dorothea “Dottie” Neal Pinkney. Dottie has been my biggest cheerleader providing support and encouragement throughout this journey. My mother has been patient and very understanding when I have been absent from family functions. Second, I would like to thank my family especially my sister Denise Pinkney Wright who constantly provided moral support to me and encouraged me through this process. The professional, academic, and personal discussions were invaluable and always helped me see the forest through the trees. I love you sis!
I would like to thank the University of Maryland University College for having a doctorate program that I was able to participate in while still working full time. It was truly a challenge, but at least I can sleep now. Thanks to my professors Dr. Michael Frank, Dr. Eric Dent, Dr. James Gelatt, Dr. Pearl Steinbuch, Dr. Laura Witz, Dr. Thomas Mierzwa, Dr. Subash Bijlani, and Dr. G. David Andersen for continuing to challenge me to strive for excellence. Special thanks to my former cohort peer Joanne Tritsch for your wittiness and humor throughout this journey. Thanks to my current cohort peer Denise Bailey Clark who is the ultimate professional who I truly admire, and Deborah Meadows who is the ultimate perfectionist. With cohort members like these, I could only soar! I would also like to thank Katherine “Kitty” Williams who always brought normality and humor to intense situations. Your help during this process was invaluable and I truly appreciate you.
Finally, I would like to thank GOD for providing me with the perseverance, fortitude, and strength to endure this rigorous program and for placing special people in my life that helped me thought this journey.Healthcare Reform: Strategies For Managing Change 4
Table of Contents
Abstract .....................................................................................................................................2
Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................3
Table of Contents.......................................................................................................................4
Chapter One: Introduction.....................................................................................................10
Background..............................................................................................................................11
Statement and Significance of the Problem................................................................................12
Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................................16
Research Questions ...................................................................................................................19
Research Assumptions ..............................................................................................................20
Research Proposition.................................................................................................................21
Definition of Terms...................................................................................................................21
Chapter Summary .....................................................................................................................22
Organization of Dissertation......................................................................................................23
Chapter Two: Literature Review ...........................................................................................25
Introduction to the Literature View ...........................................................................................25
The Healthcare Industry.........................................................................................................25
Literature Review Outline......................................................................................................26
Healthcare Industry Trends (Political, Cultural, and Economic) ................................................27
Political System.....................................................................................................................31
Enhancements in patient privacy.. ......................................................................................31
Advancement in achieving JCAHO compliance. ................................................................32
Culture .................................................................................................................................33
Improvement of workforce supply......................................................................................33
Improving staffing shortages..............................................................................................34
Economic System..................................................................................................................35
Electronic health records.. ..................................................................................................36
Telemedicine.....................................................................................................................36
Growth of healthcare sector................................................................................................36
Healthcare Innovation ...............................................................................................................38
Innovation Theory .................................................................................................................39Healthcare Reform: Strategies For Managing Change 5
Disruptive innovation.........................................................................................................39
Incremental innovation.......................................................................................................41
Architectural innovation.....................................................................................................42
Open innovation.................................................................................................................43
Compare-contrast innovations. ...........................................................................................44
Innovation as a Process..........................................................................................................45
Eight Promising Healthcare Innovations ................................................................................46
Checklists ..........................................................................................................................47
Payment innovations. .........................................................................................................47
Patient portals ....................................................................................................................47
Behavioral economics.. ......................................................................................................48
Surgical robots...................................................................................................................49
Genetic medicine. ..............................................................................................................49
Regenerative medicine. ......................................................................................................49
Accountable care organizations ..........................................................................................50
Information Technology in Healthcare...................................................................................50
Electronic Medical Records (EMR) .......................................................................................52
Automatic Tracking Software ................................................................................................52
Barriers.................................................................................................................................53
Costs.................................................................................................................................53
Culture change.. .................................................................................................................54
Patient privacy and trust.. ...................................................................................................55
Best Practices in Healthcare Innovation .................................................................................56
Healthcare innovation incentives........................................................................................56
National Best Practice Innovation..........................................................................................58
Organizational Change Theory..................................................................................................61
Planned Change Models ........................................................................................................64
Implementing Successful Change ..........................................................................................67
Propositions from the Literature Review ...................................................................................72
Summary of Literature Review..................................................................................................73
Chapter Three: Conceptual Framework................................................................................74Healthcare Reform: Strategies For Managing Change 6
Introduction to the Conceptual Framework................................................................................74
Message in the Literature Review..............................................................................................74
Literature review “lenses” – Integration of scholarship into the framework............................74
The System Lens ...................................................................................................................75
The Practical Lens .................................................................................................................76
The Theoretical Lens .............................................................................................................77
The Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................................78
Chapter Summary .....................................................................................................................80
Chapter Four: Methodology...................................................................................................81
Methodology Overview.............................................................................................................81
Evidence Based Research and Methodology..............................................................................81
Definition and Application to This Study...............................................................................81
Evidence Based Research in Theory and Practice ..................................................................82
Discussion of Relevant Scholarly Evidence...............................................................................85
Subject Matter Expert Panel......................................................................................................89
Subject Matter Expert’s Identification and Rationale for Selection.........................................90
The Feedback Process............................................................................................................91
Subject Matter Expert Feedback ............................................................................................92
Changes Resulting from the Feedback Results .......................................................................94
Chapter Summary .....................................................................................................................94
Chapter Five: Analysis and Discussion ..................................................................................96
Introduction ..............................................................................................................................96
Presentation and Summary of the Findings................................................................................96
Findings Research Question 1 ...................................................................................................97
Healthcare Innovation Findings .............................................................................................98
Innovation theory findings. ................................................................................................98
Promising healthcare innovation findings...........................................................................99
Information technology findings. .....................................................................................101
Organizational Change Findings ..........................................................................................105
Change theory findings ....................................................................................................105
Environmental change findings. .......................................................................................108Healthcare Reform: Strategies For Managing Change 7
Findings Research Question 2 .................................................................................................111
Healthcare Trends Findings .................................................................................................111
Enhancements in patient privacy ......................................................................................113
Advancement in achieving JCAHO compliance. ..............................................................113
Improvement of workforce supply....................................................................................113
Improving staffing shortages. ...........................................................................................114
Electronic health records. .................................................................................................114
Telemedicine. ..................................................................................................................115
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................115
Alternative Perspectives ..........................................................................................................116
Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................117
Chapter Six: Conclusions, Implications, and Trends ..........................................................119
Introduction ............................................................................................................................119
Overall Conclusions ................................................................................................................119
Implication for Management ...................................................................................................121
Implications of Trends ............................................................................................................122
Global Trends in Healthcare....................................................................................................123
Limitations and Future Research .............................................................................................124
Summary................................................................................................................................125
References ..............................................................................................................................127
Appendix A Best Practices in Healthcare Innovation...............................................................148
Appendix B Public and Private Health Information Technology Initiatives .............................151
Appendix C Young’s Nine Change Literature Themes ............................................................152
Appendix D Kotter’s Eight Steps for Transforming an Organization .......................................154
Appendix E UMUC Executive Director’s Evaluation Form.....................................................155
Appendix F Dissertation Chapter Outline ................................................................................157
Appendix G Subject Matter Expert Evaluation & Feedback Form...........................................158
Appendix H Subject Matter Expert Evaluation & Feedback Form – Dr. Haley ........................159
Appendix I Subject Matter Expert Evaluation & Feedback Form – Dr. Young ........................162Healthcare Reform: Strategies For Managing Change 8
Figure 1 Social Process Framework...........................................................................................28
Figure 2 Diffusion of Health Information Technology...............................................................58
Figure 3 Literature Review Convergence ..................................................................................75
Figure 4 Conceptual Framework for Successfully Managing Healthcare Industry Change.........79
Figure 5 Hierarchy of Evidence.................................................................................................84
Figure 6 A Theoretical Model of the Dynamics of the Planned Change Model ........................109 Healthcare Reform: Strategies For Managing Change 9
Table 1 U.S. International Price Comparison of Specific Medical Products and Services...........16
Table 2 Social Process Framework- Trend Analysis Checklist...................................................29
Table 3 Database Search Combination – Word Search ..............................................................86
Table 4 Inclusion of Literature in this Study................
An Analysis of American and European Business Operations in Africa: Lessons Learned Based on the Dynamic Interaction of Leadership with African Culture
No full textResearch findings show that failure to manage companies in Africa cost western companies over 2 billion per year. Therefore, it is imperative that western leaders ensure the success of companies in Africa to reduce such losses. This dissertation analyzed leadership practices, cultural differences, and differing ethics of American and European leadership as they interact with African leaders within western-dominant companies in Africa. This dissertation argues that western leaders managing company operations in Africa lack cross-cultural skills. Also, these western leaders manage operations based on their beliefs and expectations without taking into account African culture and practices. Whereas cultural practices tend to be individualist in western environments, African practices are collectivist in nature, adding to the complexity in leadership style needed to manage western companies in Africa. There is also the added complexity of western leaders managing in African work environments where there is a lack of strong western-based regulatory frameworks and ethical business practices. This dissertation found that western leaders need to adopt a compromise approach to managing business operations in Africa, which can be achieved by western leaders adapting to African cultural practices and putting in place interventions to enhance cooperative relationships that lead to productivity. This research is important given the scarcity of empirical research on western leaders seeking solutions to manage their operations in Africa in the light of the deeply rooted culture that influences African leadership behaviors and western-based ethical dilemmas. Findings from this research will provide western managers with recommendations on how to manage the effects of African culture and business ethics on western business operations in Africa.
Keywords: Globalization, Africa, Western Companies, Western Leadership, Culture, Ethics WESTERN BUSINESS OPERATIONS IN AFRICA 4
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 3
Chapter One: Introduction ............................................................................................................ 10
Purpose of Study ....................................................................................................................... 13
Problem Statement .................................................................................................................... 15
Research Question .................................................................................................................... 16
Warrant and Propositions .......................................................................................................... 18
Summary of Chapter One ......................................................................................................... 19
Organization of the Paper ......................................................................................................... 19
Chapter Two: Systematic Literature Review ................................................................................ 21
The Analytic Framework .......................................................................................................... 21
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 25
Situational Leadership Theory .............................................................................................. 26
Cultural Theories .................................................................................................................. 27
Compromise Theory ............................................................................................................. 30
Leadership and Doing Business in Africa ................................................................................ 32
Business Opportunities in Africa .......................................................................................... 32
Leadership Abilities Needed to Adapt to African Management and Cultural Practices ...... 33
Adaptation and Principles of Compromise ........................................................................... 42
Culture and Conducting Business in Africa.............................................................................. 48 WESTERN BUSINESS OPERATIONS IN AFRICA 5
Ethics and Doing Business in Africa ........................................................................................ 59
Summary of Chapter Two ......................................................................................................... 74
Chapter Three: Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................ 76
Restating the Problem ............................................................................................................... 77
Revisiting the Research Question and Propositions ................................................................. 77
The Interaction of the Three Themes ........................................................................................ 78
Western Context.................................................................................................................... 79
African Context ..................................................................................................................... 82
Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................. 84
Alignment of Goals ............................................................................................................... 84
Situational Leadership .......................................................................................................... 87
Summary of Chapter Three ....................................................................................................... 88
Chapter Four: Methodology .......................................................................................................... 89
Evidence-Based Management Research ............................................................................... 89
Systematic Literature Review Process for this Dissertation ..................................................... 91
Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria ..................................................................................................... 93
Narrative Synthesis ............................................................................................................... 95
Subject Matter Experts .............................................................................................................. 95
Subject Matter Expert Feedback ........................................................................................... 98
Changes Made Based on Subject Matter Expert Feedback .................................................... 101 WESTERN BUSINESS OPERATIONS IN AFRICA 6
Summary of Chapter Four ...................................................................................................... 102
Chapter Five: Analysis and Discussion ...................................................................................... 103
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................... 103
Exploration of Research Question .......................................................................................... 104
Presentation of the Findings.................................................................................................... 105
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 111
Leadership ........................................................................................................................... 112
Culture................................................................................................................................ 113
Ethics.................................................................................................................................. 114
Alternative perspectives ...................................................................................................... 115
Summary of Chapter Five ....................................................................................................... 116
Chapter Six: Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations for Future Study .................... 118
Overall Research Conclusions ................................................................................................ 118
Implications for Management ................................................................................................. 120
Implications of Trends ............................................................................................................ 121
Limitations and Areas for Future Research ............................................................................ 124
Summary of Chapter Six ......................................................................................................... 126
References .................................................................................................................................. 127
Appendix A: Personal Assessment Tool..................................................................................... 139
Appendix B: UMUC Doctoral Program Executive Director’s Letter ........................................ 142 WESTERN BUSINESS OPERATIONS IN AFRICA 7
Appendix C: Dissertation Chapter Outline ................................................................................. 145
Appendix D: UMUC Subject Matter Expert Evaluation & Feedback Form .............................. 147
Appendix E: Subject Matter Expert Evaluation & Feedback Form From Professor Franklyn Manu .......................................................................................................................................... 149
Appendix F: Subject Matter Feedback Form From Dr. P. K. Nduom ........................................ 152
Appendix G: Subject Matter Feedback Form From Professor S. Adams ................................... 155
WESTERN BUSINESS OPERATIONS IN AFRICA 8
Tables
Table 1, Subject Matter Expert Panel Member Information……………………………………..94
Table 2, Summary of Subject Matter Expert Feedback………………….………………………96
WESTERN BUSINESS OPERATIONS IN AFRICA 9
Figures
Figure 1, Themes and contextual factors influencing the cooperative management of western-based operations in Africa………………………………………………….....………………..77
Figure 2, A conceptual framework of compromise leadership and alignment of goals to achieve cooperation between western and African managers…………………………………………..82
Figure 3, Five step process of EBMgt. Note: Reprinted from “Research Methods Knowledgebase” by W. Trochim & J. Donnelly, 2007. Copyright by Thomson Custom Publishing 2007…………………………………………………………………………….......89
Figure 4, Questions used as guidelines to determine inclusion/exclusion of literature in Systematic Literature Review………………………………………………………………….92 WESTERN BUSINESS OPERATIONS IN AFRICA 10
An Analysis American and European Business Operations in Africa: Lessons Learned Based on the Dynamic Interaction of Western Leadership with African Culture
Chapter One: Introduction
The extent to which business cultures of North American and European companies interact with African culture, and the resultant effects of this interaction based on differences in leadership, culture and ethics, was the focus of this research. These interactions resulted in various outcomes that provided lessons for use by North American and European companies seeking to do business in Africa. Hofstede (1980) found that people “are culturally conditioned” (p.50), and given that management theories developed in the last several decades have been based on work environments in the United States and Europe, most management theories that influence leadership development and formal leader selection processes reflect the culture of the United States and Europe. There is a vast difference between North American and European management practices and African management practices (Luiz, 2006; Trompenaars, 1993). For the purposes of this dissertation, North American and European companies were referred to as “western companies.”
This dissertation assessed the interactions between western and African leaders to determine how their management practices and cultural differences impacted business operations. The goal was to provide western leaders with a model for managing western businesses operating in Africa. Hofstede (1993), the renowned scholar on cross-cultural theories, found that national and societal cultural infrastructures develop over time. In addition, Hofstede (1993) argued that in the same way, local management practices and capabilities develop as part of the cultural infrastructure of the people. As such, managers and their practices WESTERN BUSINESS OPERATIONS IN AFRICA 11
grounded in these cultural infrastructures cannot be transported in a wholesale manner from one environment to another without taking national and societal culture into account. Hofstede (1993) postulated that “Management is not a phenomenon that can be isolated from other processes taking place in a society” (p. 89). In order for western leaders to be successful in Africa they must understand African management systems (Amoako-Agyei, 2009). In addition they must be sensitive to issues of ethnicity. Both African management systems and issues of ethnicity are rooted in cultural traditions and ideals.
There are opposing arguments as to when globalization began. Geographers, political scientists, sociologists and economists have individual interpretations of what globalization is, what it should be, and how it impacts various disciplines (Gichure, 2006). Globalization is more than industries and companies setting up operations in host countries across the globe. Prevailing beliefs are that globalization occurred due to companies and organizations taking advantage of less expensive production costs as well as larger markets.
The rise in cross-border business activities has been fueled by the need to find cheaper raw materials and labor. Research revealed that the high interest yield from investments in Africa helped to attract more western businesses to the African continent (Demas, 2011; Lemi & Asefa, 2009). For example, Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) earned an average rate of return of 29% in Africa from 1990 to 1999 (Demas, 2011). U.S. companies enjoyed a rate of return of above 10% between 1983 and 1997 when worldwide rates were much lower (Amoako-Agyei, 2009). Furthermore, the United States earned higher profits on their investment in Africa compared to other developing countries in Asia or Latin America based on a 1988 report by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (Lemi & Asefa, 2009). Carmody and Owusu’s (2007) findings from 2005 statistics, obtained from the United States Department of WESTERN BUSINESS OPERATIONS IN AFRICA 12
Commerce, showed that United States trade with Africa grew by 37% in 2004, with higher levels of trade with Africa than Russia and the former eastern bloc combined.
Most definitions, standards, and guidelines for determining business ethical practices have been derived from western standards and practices (De Maria, 2005). Western managers perceive that western countries have higher standards for managing ethical practices and regulatory frameworks than businesses being established in developing countries. Since organizational measures are generally based on ethical standards, the measurement of organizational management indices, such as gift giving which is considered “bribe giving” and an unethical practice in western countries (Tsalikis & Nwachukwu, 1991, p. 85), are also based on standards from western countries. Therefore, the perception that Africa has a higher level of corruption than what exists in western countries arises given that the criteria used to measure corruption is based on western standards (Vogel, 1992). Business ethics in Africa differ from what are acceptable in western business environments (De Maria, 2005). Thus, standards in evaluating ethical behavior in Africa differ from what are used in western countries. Companies moving offshore to Africa must be cognizant of the ethics and morals inherent in the African work culture (Frynas, 2004; Gichure, 2006; Moon & Woolliams, 2000).
Demas (2011) contended that western managers have experienced high failure rates in establishing sound management practices in western companies operating in Africa. This is partly due to the fact that western standards are used in assessing whether business practices are ethical when managing operations in Africa. Another factor that impacts the ability of western managers to succeed in managing African operations is the lack of knowledge and experience in dealing with African norms and practices that underpin what are believed to be unethical practices by western company standards. WESTERN BUSINESS OPERATIONS IN AFRICA 13
Purpose of Study
Western companies are re-locating their operations to Africa due to: (1) the need for lower cost of raw material, (2) availability of cheap but skilled labor, (3) the rise in ready markets for the goods being produced by the western companies, and (4) favorable tax laws and corporate tax incentives (Abiaka, 1972; Amoako-Agyei, 2009). The purpose of this dissertation was to examine cross-cultural compet
Effective global virtual teams: The impact of culture, communication, and trust
No full textGlobalization has led to an increased competitiveness between organizations and in their efforts
to effectively work across geographic boundaries. Global virtual teams offer to organizations a
means to bring together dispersed talent from all over the world. Insight regarding the impact of
culture, communication, and trust on global virtual team (GVT) effectiveness has become
increasingly important. This dissertation utilized an evidence-based systematic review of the
literature as its method, employing primary original research as its foundation. The findings of
this dissertation suggested that the components of culture, communication, and trust may be
interrelated. The findings of this dissertation also suggested that these components, either
independently or in combination, might have an impact on global virtual team effectiveness. The
findings of this dissertation further suggested that managers and team members of GVTs benefit
from understanding the impact of these components on the ability of GVTs to work
collaboratively and effectively. Lastly, the findings of this dissertation suggested that social
components related to GVTs, such as socialization, social communication, and relationships,
may affect communication, trust, and GVT effectiveness. This dissertation offers insight to
organizations, management practitioners, and global virtual teams, by building upon previous
research. It brings insight to the field of management and offers a new perspective regarding
global virtual teams.Running head: GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 1
Effective global virtual teams: The impact of culture, communication, and trust
Michael R. Keller
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D.
James P. Gelatt, Ph. D.
July 27, 2014
Running head: GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 2
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 2
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ 6
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. 7
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 8
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... 9
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter One: Introduction ............................................................................................................ 12
Purpose of the Dissertation; Statement and Significance of the Problem ................................. 12
Importance to Management ....................................................................................................... 15
Research Propositions ............................................................................................................... 15
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 16
Definition of Key Terms ........................................................................................................... 16
Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................... 18
Chapter Two: Systematic Review of the Literature ...................................................................... 19
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 19
Critical Review and Analysis .................................................................................................... 20
Overview ............................................................................................................................... 20
Virtual Communication – Effects of Technology ................................................................. 21
Culture.................................................................................................................................. 33
Communication ..................................................................................................................... 39
Trust ..................................................................................................................................... 51
Effectiveness of Global Virtual Teams ................................................................................. 58
Effectiveness and the Possible Shift of Emphasis from the Impact of Technology to the
Impact of Virtuality............................................................................................................... 67
Running head: GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 3
Theoretical Lenses ........................................................................................................................ 72
Social Presence Theory ......................................................................................................... 72
Time, Interaction, and Performance (TIP) Theory ............................................................... 73
Media Richness Theory ........................................................................................................ 74
Swift Trust Theory ................................................................................................................ 76
Research Propositions ............................................................................................................... 78
Synthesis of the Critical Review and Analysis ......................................................................... 79
Summary of Chapter Two ......................................................................................................... 85
Chapter Three: Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................ 86
Conceptual Framework of the Dissertation ............................................................................... 86
The Venn Diagram .................................................................................................................... 87
Integration of Literature into the Dissertation Framework ....................................................... 92
Summary of Chapter Three ....................................................................................................... 97
Chapter Four: Methodology .......................................................................................................... 98
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 98
Theory and Practice of Evidence-Based Research .................................................................... 99
Linkage of Evidence-Based Research with Evidence-Based Management ............................ 101
Evidence-Based Research/Systematic Review of the Literature Methodology ...................... 102
Quality appraisal of evidence .............................................................................................. 104
Relevance appraisal of evidence ......................................................................................... 106
Stages of systematic review and thematic synthesis ........................................................... 107
Expert Panel ............................................................................................................................ 109
Inclusion of Expert Panel Feedback ........................................................................................ 110
Summary of Chapter Four ....................................................................................................... 111
Running head: GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 4
Chapter Five: Analysis and Discussion ...................................................................................... 113
Introduction to Chapter Five ................................................................................................... 113
Method and Thematic Synthesis ............................................................................................. 113
Synthesis of the Findings and Presentation of Other Points of View ..................................... 114
Virtual Communication – Effects of Technology ............................................................... 114
Culture................................................................................................................................ 117
Communication ................................................................................................................... 118
Trust ................................................................................................................................... 120
Effectiveness of Global Virtual Teams and the Possible Shift of Emphasis from the Impact
of Technology to the Impact of Virtuality .......................................................................... 122
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 122
Summary of Chapter Five ....................................................................................................... 125
Chapter Six: Conclusions, Implications, and Trends .................................................................. 126
Overall Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 126
Implications for Management ................................................................................................. 127
Implications of Emerging Trends ............................................................................................ 128
The Impact of Leadership on GVTs ................................................................................... 128
Conflict Avoidance and Conflict Resolution between Dispersed Team Members ............ 128
The Impact of Training on GVT Effectiveness .................................................................. 129
The Impact of Cultural Insight on Cohesion and Effectiveness ......................................... 129
The Management of Team Expectations ............................................................................ 130
The Social Components of Effective GVTs ....................................................................... 130
Limitations and Areas for Future Research............................................................................. 131
Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 131
Areas for Future Research .................................................................................................. 132
Running head: GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 5
Summary of Chapter and of Dissertation ................................................................................ 133
References .................................................................................................................................. 135
Appendix A: PRISMA ................................................................................................................ 145
Appendix B: Search strings ........................................................................................................ 146
Appendix C: Literature reviews, books, and theories ................................................................. 148
Appendix D: Quality appraisal tool (Weight of Evidence - WOE) ............................................ 149
Appendix E: Sample relevance appraisal tool for selected dissertation references .................... 151
Appendix F: Stages of systematic review synthesis ................................................................... 155
Appendix G: Expert Panel Member Biographies ....................................................................... 157
Appendix H: Sample Expert Panel Review Form ...................................................................... 160
Running head: GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 6
List of Figures
Figure 1: E-GPR global team questionnaire ................................................................................ 24
Figure 2: Face-to-face vs. virtual communication modes in cultural diversity ............................ 35
Figure 3: Changes in global virtual team (GVT) trust .................................................................. 56
Figure 4: Functions and modes of Time, Interaction, and Performance (TIP) Theory ................ 74
Figure 5: Communication medium richness ................................................................................. 76
Figure 6: Factors affecting the perception of trust ........................................................................ 77
Figure 7: Effective global virtual teams........................................................................................ 88
Figure 8: Theoretical Lenses that pertain to GVTs ....................................................................... 89
Figure 9: Conceptual framework of Chang, et al., 2011 ............................................................... 95
Figure 10: Virtual team effectiveness model ................................................................................ 97
Figure 11: Stages of a systematic review .................................................................................... 102
Figure 12: PRISMA Diagram ..................................................................................................... 145
Figure 13: Stages of systematic review synthesis ....................................................................... 155
Running head: GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 7
List of Tables
Table 1: Relationship of culture, communication, and trust with effective GVTs in selected
references ..................................................................................................................................... 91
Table 2: Search Strings ............................................................................................................... 146
Table 3: Alternative References .................................................................................................. 148
Table 4: Weight of Evidence ...................................................................................................... 149
Table 5: Relevance appraisal tool for selected dissertation references ....................................... 151
Running head: GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 8
Abstract
Globalization has led to an increased competitiveness between organizations and in their efforts
to effectively work across geographic boundaries. Global virtual teams offer to organizations a
means to bring together dispersed talent from all over the world. Insight regarding the impact of
culture, communication, and trust on global virtual team (GVT) effectiveness has become
increasingly important. This dissertation utilized an evidence-based systematic review of the
literature as its method, employing primary original research as its foundation. The findings of
this dissertation suggested that the components of culture, communication, and trust may be
interrelated. The findings of this dissertation also suggested that these components, either
independently or in combination, might have an impact on global virtual team effectiveness. The
findings of this dissertation further suggested that managers and team members of GVTs benefit
from understanding the impact of these components on the ability of GVTs to work
collaboratively and effectively. Lastly, the findings of this dissertation suggested that social
components related to GVTs, such as socialization, social communication, and relationships,
may affect communication, trust, and GVT effectiveness. This dissertation offers insight to
organizations, management practitioners, and global virtual teams, by building upon previous
research. It brings insight to the field of management and offers a new perspective regarding
global virtual teams.
Keywords: global, virtual, team, teams, culture, communication, trust
Running head: GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 9
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my family, who has supported me, throughout this
journey.
Running head: GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 10
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge all of the individuals who helped to make my Doctor of
Management journey and dissertation a success. Without the help and support of those
individuals, none of this would have been possible.
I would like to acknowledge my wife, Melissa, for her unconditional support of my
efforts, for her ability to motivate me throughout the doctoral program, and for her willingness to
forgo everything, to me, and this journey.
I would like to acknowledge my son, Jack, who is my inspiration to succeed in
everything that I do.
I would like to acknowledge my family, especially my mother, Linda, and my father,
Donald, who have supported me throughout my life and who instilled, in me, the importance of
education, hard work, and dedication.
I would also like to acknowledge all of the faculty and staff at University of Maryland
University College who have facilitated my intellectual growth and supported me throughout the
doctoral program. A special acknowledgement goes to Kathleen (Kay) Edwards, Ph.D., my
primary dissertation advisor. Her continued support, motivation, and guidance were
immeasurable.
I would further like to acknowledge the individuals who participated as expert panel
members and provided valuable feedback regarding my dissertation.
Running head: GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 11
Lastly, I would like to acknowledge those individuals, including friends and co-workers,
not mentioned by name, who also provided support and guidance over the years.
Running head: GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 12
Chapter One: Introduction
Purpose of the Dissertation; Statement and Significance of the Problem
The purpose of this dissertation is to explore the impact of culture, communication, and
trust on global virtual team (GVT) effectiveness. As defined in this dissertation: “A ‘virtual’
team is one that conducts its work almost entirely through electronic technology” (Grosse, 2002,
p. 22). Within a GVT there may be some collocated communication or training. Effectiveness,
as it relates to this dissertation, means a GVTs overall ability to work together in a cohesive
manner. For the purpose of this dissertation, culture refers to one’s individual genealogy or
national culture, including traits such as first language, family rituals, religion, and country of
origin. This dissertation is being conducted using Evidence Based Research (EBR) in order to
create actionable mixed knowledge (Gough, Oliver, & Thomas, 2012, p.250). Actionable mixed
knowledge is knowledge that includes primary research and professional experience and allows
for “evidence-informed decision-making” (Gough, et. al., 2012, p.250).
The topic of this dissertation is significant because of the amplified demand on
organizations to form global virtual teams in order to compete in an ever growing marketplace
(Ehsan, Mirza, & Ahmad, 2008, p. 842). It also seems that the formation of global virtual teams
has become unavoidable due to globalization (Ehsan, Mirza, & Ahmad, 2008, p. 842). As
globalization is becoming an increased reality, for many organizations understanding certain
components of GVTs, such as culture, communication, and trust, may become ever more
important. Research suggests that the requirements of organizational projects are increasing the
need for global teams so that the most effective input may be provided by team members
working between multiple countries (Schumacher & Poehler, 2009, p. 169).
Running head: GLOBAL VIRTUAL TEAMS 13
Global virtual teams may offer advantages to organizations, since bringing organizational
talent together in a traditional face-to-face manner may be costly if members are dispersed across
the country or internationally. GVTs may be a means to effectively bring together various
talents and perspectives needed in order to fulfill corporate goals (Staples & Zhao, 2006, p. 389).
Another advantage of implementing global virtual teams is that members have the ability to
communicate and collaborate on projects together regardless of time and space. Unlike
traditional collocated teams, GVTs are not bound by time constraints or geographic location.
The fact that global virtual teams can bring together the organization’s most appropriate
members for the task regardless of the time-zone may increase an organization’s effectiveness.
Martins, Gilson, and Maynard (2004, p. 806) support this view when they state “Overall, VTs
provide an effective structural mechanism for handling the increased travel, time, coordination,
and costs associated with bringing together geographically, temporally, and functionally
dispersed employees to work on a common task.” This lack of selected constraints, however,
may also bring added factors that are not always positive, discussed below, to consider when
managing a GVT (Chudoba, Wynn, Lu & Watson-Manheim, 2003, pp. 282-283).
While advantages may be provided to the organization through the imple
Targeted M&A Performance: Post-Acquisition Process and Organizational Integration
No full textCorporations use mergers and acquisitions (M&A) as a tactic in implementing strategy,
yet the rate of outcomes that meet targeted performance remains relatively low. Given the
importance and frequency of M&A utilization in management strategy, it is critical that the
success rate in achieving targeted perfomaance improve so that M&A are viable strategic options
for industry. Although pre-acquisition factors and processes such as financial due diligence and
strategic fit may improve the chance of success, significant evidence of correlation between these
elements and targeted performance outcomes does not exist. Further, companies will continue to
combine in’espective ofpre-acquisition coMitions and thus need assistance fi’om research in
post-acquisition moderators of success.
Much of the research of post-acquisition M&A has developed along disciplinary lines
where the process of functional integration is studied separately from integration of people in the
merged organization. This study examines the contribution of both the functional integration and
human capital integration to the targeted post-acquisition performance outcome. A systematic
review of research explores post-acquisition integration literature to identify moderators of
achievement of targeted performance.
The evidence collected supports the theory that successful post-acquisition integration of
combined processes and organizational elements correlates to successful achievement of targeted
acquisition perforrnance. Further, the research supports the theory that, although pre-acquisition
factors influence integration, the post-acquisition process moderates achievement of the targeted
performance outcome. The analysis also provides evidence regarding the importance of
leadership, management of employee-level dynamics, as well as completion of organizational and process integration prior to realization of synergies and targeted post-acquisition
performance. Thus, where many companies identify the end of the post-acquisition process as
the point at which functions combine as targeted, research suggests that closure also needs to
occur on the organizational integration side to optimize possible synergies and acquisition
performance.Targeted M&A Performance: Post-Acquisition Process and Organizational Integration
Sheila Dempsey Chickene
A Thesis
Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Mm’yland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
Advisory Committee:
Dr. Thomas Mierzwa
Dr. Denise Breckon
March 2013
UMI Number: XXXXXXX
Copyright 2013 by
Chickene, Sheila Dempsey
INFORMATION TO USERS
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy
submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations
and photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper
alignment can adversely affect reproduction.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized
copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.
UMI®
UMI Microform XXXXXX
Copyright 2013 by ProQuest, LLC
All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
ProQuest, LLC
789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, M148106-1346
University of Maryland University College
Graduate School of Management & Technology
DOCTOR OF MANAGEMENT DEGREE
DISSERTATION APPROVAL FORM
Candidate Sheila Dempsey Chickene has completed all the necessary dissertation
requirements of University of Maryland University College’s Doctor of Management
Program.
APPROVED:
Committee Chah’:
Dr. Thomas J. Mierzwa March 2, 2013
Date:
Committee Co-Chair:
Dr. Denise A. Breckon March 2, 2013
Date:
iii
Abstract
Corporations use mergers and acquisitions (M&A) as a tactic in implementing strategy,
yet the rate of outcomes that meet targeted performance remains relatively low. Given the
importance and frequency of M&A utilization in management strategy, it is critical that the
success rate in achieving targeted perfomaance improve so that M&A are viable strategic options
for industry. Although pre-acquisition factors and processes such as financial due diligence and
strategic fit may improve the chance of success, significant evidence of correlation between these
elements and targeted performance outcomes does not exist. Further, companies will continue to
combine in’espective ofpre-acquisition coMitions and thus need assistance fi’om research in
post-acquisition moderators of success.
Much of the research of post-acquisition M&A has developed along disciplinary lines
where the process of functional integration is studied separately from integration of people in the
merged organization. This study examines the contribution of both the functional integration and
human capital integration to the targeted post-acquisition performance outcome. A systematic
review of research explores post-acquisition integration literature to identify moderators of
achievement of targeted performance.
The evidence collected supports the theory that successful post-acquisition integration of
combined processes and organizational elements correlates to successful achievement of targeted
acquisition perforrnance. Further, the research supports the theory that, although pre-acquisition
factors influence integration, the post-acquisition process moderates achievement of the targeted
performance outcome. The analysis also provides evidence regarding the importance of
leadership, management of employee-level dynamics, as well as completion of organizational
iv
and process integration prior to realization of synergies and targeted post-acquisition
performance. Thus, where many companies identify the end of the post-acquisition process as
the point at which functions combine as targeted, research suggests that closure also needs to
occur on the organizational integration side to optimize possible synergies and acquisition
performance.
Dedication
V
This dissertation is dedicated to family members who were instrumental in the
completion of this body of work. First to my hnsband Paul, son Michael, and daughter Alexa,
thank you for pushing me to get the work done when it would have been nmre fun to do other
things. Thank you as well as for your unwavering belief in nay ability to complete the work
needed for my doctorate and this dissertation. I look forward to our increased time together!
To my Mom and Dad, Marie and Joe Dempsey, thank you for raising your 14 children to
believe anything is possible and for cheering us on even when you may not have agreed with our
choices. To my sister Karen Dempsey, who instigated this adventure, I look forward to
celebrating your eventual Ph.D. completion. To Marianne and Joe Chickene, my second parents,
thank you for your support and enconragement tlu’oughout. Lastly, to Lisa K Hill, my fi’iend
since kindergarten thanks for jumping in as my surrogate at Michael’s graduation - it was
inevitable that the two graduations would coincide.
vi
Ackno~vledgement
I look fondly back on the learning gained through my doctoral experience and have many
to acknowledge for their hand in the successful completion of both my coursework and this
dissertation. First, thank you to Dr. Thomas Mierzwa and Dr. Denise Breckon for acting as
advisor, coach, and editor throughout nay dissertation journey. Yore" guidance was a precious
gift.
In addition to my advisors, i ~vould also like to aclmowledge those in my cohol~t that
journeyed along with me including Rajesh Radakrishnan, Amanda Lle~vellyn, Tammy
Borkowski, Steve Gantz, Dainty Ebb, and Shaun Vaughns. There was definitely strength in
numbers. I feel blessed to have been part of such a talented group of scholars. May your new
knowledge serve you well!
vii
© Copyright by
Sheila Dempsey Chickene
2013
Table of Contents
viii
Table of Contents ...............................................................................v..i.ii
List of Tables ..............................................................................................x. i
List of Figures ............................................................................................x..i
Chapter 1 : Introduction ..........................................................................1.
Background ....................................................................................... 1
Problem Statement ...........................................................................5
Research Questions .......................................................................7
Scope of Study ..................................................................................8
Significance of This Research ...........................................................10
Dissertation Chapters ............................................................................11
Chapter 2: Literature Review ................................................................1..2
Overview .........................................................................................1.2 .
Pre-Acquisition Influences that Create Unique Acquisition Starting Points ....... 12
Perspectives in Post-Acquisition Integration ............................................... 16
Leadership and Communication in Process and Organizational Integration ........ 18
The Influence of Employee-Level Dynamics on Integration ..............................23
Development of a Combined Organizational Culture ....................................... 26
Management of Transition Process and Activities ...................................2..8
The Influence of Processes mad Organization in Post-Acquisition integration.. 32
Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework ........................................................3.5
Introduction ..............................................................................3..5
Conceptual Model Description ..............................................................36
Variables of the Analysis ................................................................ 38
Hypotheses ......................................................................................3.9
Summary of the Research Model ..................................................................44
ix
Chapter 4: Research Method ..................................................................47
Introduction ..............................................................................4.7
Research Objectives ......................................................................4.7
Research Methodology ..................................................................47
Search Strategy ..........................................................................4.9
Data Collection Methods ............................................................... 52
Research Constraints and Limitations ...................:. ............................ 54
Threats to Validity ........................................................................ 55
Subject Matter Expert (SME) Review .................................................57
Chapter 5: Analysis of Findings ............................................................ 58
Introduction ...............................................................................5.8
Systematic Literature Search Results ................................................. 58
Characteristics of Excluded Studies ................................................... 59
Characteristics of Included Studies .................................................... 62
Synthesis of Included Studies .......................................................... 63
Pre-Acquisition Factors & a Well-Executed Post-Acquisition ................... 67
Externally Focused Pre-Acquisition Factors ............................... 68
Internally Focused Pre-Acquisltion Factors ................................ 71
Externally & Internally Focused Pre-Acquisition Factors ............... 74
Leadership and Communication ...................................................... 77
Employees and Organizational Cultm’e ..............................................81
Orgaaaizational and Process integration .............................................. 84
X
Limitations ................................................................................88
Problem Definition ........................................................... 89
Literature Search .............................................................. 89
Gathering Infol~nation fi’om Included Studies ........................... 90
Methods within Individual Studies. ........................................ 91
Integration of Evidence from Individual Studies ........................... 91
Intel~retation of Evidence ................................................... 92
Presentation of Results ........................................................ 92
Conclusion ...................................................................................... 93
Chapter 6: Implications for Management ..................................................... 100
Introduction ..............................................................................100
Implications for Management Theory ................................................. 100
Implications for Management Practice ................................................ 101
Future Trends in M&A .................................................................1.03
Recommendations for Future Research ............................................... 105
References ....................................................................................................109
Appendices ...................................................................................................124
Appendix A: Matrix of Merger and Acquisition Types ........................... 124
Appendix B: Selection Criteria ....................................................... 125
Appendix C: Assesslnent Criteria Tool (ACT) ......................................126
Appendix D: Search Strings ............................................................127
Appendix E: Results of Systematic Literature Search ............................. 128
Appendix F: Sources of Literature ................................................... 129
Appendix G: SME Response Folan ................................................... 130
List of Tables
xi
Table 1 :
Table 2:
Table 3:
Table 4:
Table 5:
Table 6:
Table 7:
Table 8:
Table 9:
Table 10:
Table 11:
Table 12:
Summary of Propositions Derived from Literature Review ................
Summary of Propositions, Variables, and Hypotheses ........................
Summary of Sem’ch Themes .......................................................
Search String Strategy Summary ....................................................
Excluded Studies .....................................................................
Included Study Summaries .........................................................
Externally Focused Pre-Acquisition Factor Studies and Findings .....
Internally Focused Pre-Acquisition Factor Studies and Findings ......
Externally & Internally Focused Pre-Acquisition Factor Studies and
Findings .......................................................................
Leadership and Communication Studies & Findings ..........................
Employee-Level Dynamics & Organizational Culture Studies and
Findings .........................................................................
Organizational & Process Integration Studies and Findings .................
34
45
51
52
61
64
71
73
76
81
84
88
Figure 1 :
Fignre 2:
Figure 3:
List of Figures
Conceptual Model of Post-Acquisition integration for Targeted M&A
Performance ..........................................................................................
Research Model and Hypotheses ....................................................
Evidence Based Model and Hypotheses ..................................
37
46
94
POST-M&A INTEGRATION AND PERFORMANCE 1
Background
Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Problem
Mergers and acquisitions (M&A) are primary tactics in the arena of corporate strategy for
growth and sustainability. Thomson Financial figures show that an estimated 10,000 US
mergers and acquisitions occun’ed in 2006 (Marks & Vansteenkiste, 2008). Cartwright and
Schoenberg (2006) put the global rate at about 30,000 acquisitions in 2004. In spite of its use as
a tactic in corporate growth, estimates of success rates continue to be no higher than about 25-
34% (Deutsch & West, 2010). Some of the highest success rates are estimated at 50%
(Cartwright & Schoenberg, 2006). Further, Marks and Mirvis (1992) claim 33% of M&A result
in resale within five years of acquisition. As such, Haspeslagh and Jemison (1987), refer to
M&A as a risky vehicle for strategic renewal while Pablo and Javidan (2002) categorize the
M&A record of accomplishment as mediocre. Moreover, research indicates that despite decades
of study of factors such as acquisition relatedness, prior acquisition experience, and
organizational complementarity, antecedents for achievement of targeted financial outcomes
remain tmknown (Hitt, Harrison, Ireland, & Best, 1998; King, Dalton, Daily, & Covin, 2004).
Hitt et al. (1998) state, "the fact that acquisitive growth is a significant firm strategy and
many acquisitions are not successful suggests an inadequate theoretical and practical
understanding of this complex phenomenon" (p. 92). Many disciplines are attempting to
understand how acquisition integration processes can improve the probability of success
(Cartwright & Schoenberg, 2006). Research identifies four primary schools of thought that
attempt to explain these phenomena including financial, strategic management, process, and
organizational perspectives (Birkinshaw, Bresman, & HSkanson, 2000; Cartwright &
POST-M&A INTEGRATION AND PERFORMANCE 2
Schoenberg, 2006; Chatteljee, Lubatldn, Schweiger, & Weber, 1992; Creasy, Stull, & Peck,
2009; Harrison, Hitt, Hoskisson, & Ireland, 199t; and Homburg & Bucerius, 2006). Haspeslagh
and Jemison (1987) identify two phases of the M&A process - the activities that occur before the
signing of the agreement and the integration phase that occurs thereafter. The financial and
strategic management schools of thought tend to research the former whereas the majority of the
process and organizational studies align with the latter (Birkinshaw et al., 2000).
The focus of the financial perspective is primarily on wealth creation that results fi’om
efficiencies or synergies in acquisitions (Birkinsha~v et al., 2000; Cartwright & Schoenberg,
2006; and Harrison et al., 1991). The strategic management perspective focuses on the
compatibility or strategic fit of the merging organizations prior to acquisition (Birkinsha~v et al.,
2000; Cartwright & Schoenberg, 2006). Through the 1980’s, the majority of research in M&A
focused on the financial and strategic fit of the acquiring and acquired firms (Barkema &
Schijven, 2008; Nahavandi & Malekzadeh, 1988).
Despite the volume of research in the pre-acquisition arena, Harvey and Lusch (1995)
describe the lack of a comprehensive due diligence model as "disquieting" (p. 5) and call for
expanded resem’ch in this area. A decade later King et al. (2004) provide meta-analytic evidence
of a lack of economic or strategic antecedents of acquisition financial performance. The authors
determined that financial and strategic management factors were not capable of explaining the
success or failure and recommended searching for additional antecedents of success. Although
research continues in the pre-acquisition phase, Barkema and Schijven (2008) note a recent shift
in research to the post-acquisition process with potential to enhance or even predict the
realization of intended acquisition synergies. Given that poor fiscal and strategic due diligence is
not a sufficient explanation for all failures; research needs to look beyond the pre-acquisition
phase of M&A and investigate the post-acquisition phase.
POST-M&A INTEGRATION AND PERFORMANCE 3
In the process and organizational perspectives, the focus is primarily on post-acquisition
management, with evidence that the due diligence phase also benefits from understanding both
process and organizational integration during post-acquisition. The process perspective
investigates the role that an integration strategy and subsequent actions have on the outcome
while an organizational perspective focuses on employee and cultural dynamics of the
integration process (Cartwright and Schoenberg, 2006). Jemison and Sitkin (1986) define the
process perspective as "the acquisition process itselt" (p. 145) and focus on activities that occur
tbxoughout the acquisition. Birldnshaw et al. (2000) define the process perspective as task
integration in the post-acquisition phase of M&A.
If due diligence in the areas of financial and strategic compatibility are insufficient
predictors of success, then study of post-acquisition and these latter areas of process and
organizational integration may provide sought after answers. Cartwright and Schoenberg (2006)
comment that research and insight have tended to develop along disciplinary lines rather than in
a holistic or multi-disciplinary approach. Cartwright and Cooper (1995) recommend a multi-disciplinary
approach to allow for a "collective rather than fragmented contribution to our
understanding of the phenomena" (p. 41). In their study of successful and unsuccessful
acquisitions, Hittet al. (1998) concur with Cartwright and Cooper in concluding that no one
single theory fully explained the success or failure of acquisitions. Whereas fi
Successfully Leading Needed Organization Change: Strategies for Leading Change and Managing Resistance
No full textOrganizations are continually undergoing changes to make improvements to business strategies, to remain competitive, and to become efficient and effective. Change is an inevitable part of an organization. Therefore, this dissertation has examined significant theories, practices, and studies to determine the impact of factors that can successfully assist leaders in leading change and managing resistance. Through a qualitative approach, including literature analysis, evidential research, and review of case studies, this dissertation has developed many factors regarding the strategies that can have an impact on managing change and the way that leaders must implement change and effectively manage resistance to change. The author’s purpose in this dissertation was to examine organizational change strategies that leaders can use to implement needed change and to manage resistance, while positively affecting organizational performance and employee satisfaction. The results of this dissertation indicated that specific change management strategies have a positive impact on leading change and managing resistance while successfully ensuring staff satisfaction and organizational performance. The results revealed that leadership is an essential part of having successful implementation of organizational change initiatives and the effective use of change management strategies. The results revealed strategies for leading change and managing resistance in the 11 identified research theme areas: leading change; empowerment; shared vision; trust; resisting change; communication and knowledge of change; commitment to change; planning; organizational culture; hope and optimism; and contingent rewards.Running Head: SUCCESSFULLY LEADING NEEDED ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE i
Successfully Leading Needed Organization Change:
Strategies for Leading Change and Managing Resistance
Cheryl De Vose
Dissertation
A Thesis Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty
of
University of Maryland University College
in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Management
Advisors:
G. David Andersen, Ed.D., Primary Dissertation Advisor
Eric B. Dent, Ph.D., Dissertation Advisor
Kathleen F. Edwards, Ph.D., Dissertation Faculty
James P. Gelatt, Ph.D., Dissertation FacultySUCCESSFULLY LEADING NEEDED ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE ii
Abstract
Organizations are continually undergoing changes to make improvements to business strategies, to remain competitive, and to become efficient and effective. Change is an inevitable part of an organization. Therefore, this dissertation has examined significant theories, practices, and studies to determine the impact of factors that can successfully assist leaders in leading change and managing resistance. Through a qualitative approach, including literature analysis, evidential research, and review of case studies, this dissertation has developed many factors regarding the strategies that can have an impact on managing change and the way that leaders must implement change and effectively manage resistance to change. The author’s purpose in this dissertation was to examine organizational change strategies that leaders can use to implement needed change and to manage resistance, while positively affecting organizational performance and employee satisfaction. The results of this dissertation indicated that specific change management strategies have a positive impact on leading change and managing resistance while successfully ensuring staff satisfaction and organizational performance. The results revealed that leadership is an essential part of having successful implementation of organizational change initiatives and the effective use of change management strategies. The results revealed strategies for leading change and managing resistance in the 11 identified research theme areas: leading change; empowerment; shared vision; trust; resisting change; communication and knowledge of change; commitment to change; planning; organizational culture; hope and optimism; and contingent rewards.
Keywords: change management, organizational change, commitment to change, employees, leaders, leading change, organizational performance, employees satisfaction, change management strategies, and change resistance SUCCESSFULLY LEADING NEEDED ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE iii
Acknowledgement
Many people have contributed to the completion of this dissertation, and for that, I thank them. I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my primary dissertation advisor, Dr. G. David Andersen, for his guidance and support throughout the course of this dissertation. I appreciated his insight and experience. I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Eric Dent, for critically evaluating my topic and providing expertise on my dissertation topic. I would also like to thank the members of my dissertation committee for their guidance in moving this dissertation in the right direction, Dr. Kathleen Edwards and Dr. James Gelatt. To my past faculty, Dr. Sherlock, I say thank you for guidance on research methods. To University of Maryland University College’s librarian, Cynthia Thomes, I thank you for your assistance with locating research relevant to the topic of this dissertation. I want to say thank you to my entire University of Maryland University College faculty who shared their knowledge in their respective field of study.
I want to give a special thanks to the expert panel, Dr. Perkins, Dr. Pilenzo, and Mr. Quiros, for reviewing my draft dissertation chapters and providing critical feedback and guidance on the topic of change management. I greatly appreciated the evaluation of my chapters and the recommendations from the expert panel.
To my cohort, Holly Cicconi-Eggleston (The Golden Child), Wanda Wagner (Wandaful), and Joseph Drasin (Lord Drasin), I appreciate you for your continued support and motivation over the years to get me through this program. To my past cohort, Steve Fritts, John Kennedy Lewis, and Mark Livingston, I thank you for your thoughtful insights. In addition, I would like to thank my former cohort, Matthew Hicks, for supporting me through this difficult time and telling me, I can do it. SUCCESSFULLY LEADING NEEDED ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE iv
Dedication
I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my family for their unconditional love and support through this journey. Ultimately, I would like to thank God for guiding and seeing me through this phase in my life. To my parents, Ernest and Carnell De Vose, and sisters, Katrina, Felicia, Stephanie, Teressa, Doreen, and Christine, I dedicate this to you for telling me I can do it and believing in me through this journey. To my husband, Sterling, for his patience and support through this journey, I dedicate this dissertation. To my children, Jaelyn and Sterling Jr. (AJ), I dedicate this dissertation to you for being the background noise I needed while writing this dissertation. I know one day you will understand my temporary time away from you, and for that, I thank you.
SUCCESSFULLY LEADING NEEDED ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE v
Table of Contents
Abstract .................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................... iii
Dedication ............................................................................................................................... iv
Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................v
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER 1 ..............................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE ...............................1
Background of the Dissertation .....................................................................................1
Introduction ........................................................................................................1
Background and Relevant Literature .................................................................2
Planned Approach to Organizational Change ....................................................2
Resistance to Change .........................................................................................5
Statement and Significance of the Problem ...................................................................6
Problem: Rate of Change Failures .....................................................................8
Problem: The Impact on Organizational Performance ....................................10
Problem: The Impact on Employees Satisfaction ............................................10
Purpose of the Dissertation ..........................................................................................11
Research Questions ......................................................................................................11
Importance to Management .........................................................................................12
Research Propositions ......................................................................................13
Definition of Terms..........................................................................................13
Summary ......................................................................................................................16 SUCCESSFULLY LEADING NEEDED ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE vi
Organization of the Dissertation ..................................................................................16
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................18
METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................................18
Introduction ..................................................................................................................18
Discussion of Evidence Based Research and Methodology ........................................19
Discussion of the Scholarly Research Evidence Tools ................................................22
Scope of Analysis ............................................................................................22
Standards for Research ....................................................................................23
Mixed-Methods Approach ...............................................................................24
Scholarly Research Evidence Tools.................................................................26
Research selection.. ..........................................................................................26
Search strategy. ................................................................................................28
Themes and coding.. ........................................................................................31
Flow Chart for Systematic Review and Mixed-Method Synthesis Approach to Research ...........................................................................................................32
Presentation and Discussion of the Expert Panel .........................................................33
Expert Panel Purpose and Process ...................................................................34
The Panel Members .........................................................................................34
Feedback from Expert Panel ............................................................................35
Impact of Panel Members’ Comments ............................................................36
Summary ......................................................................................................................36
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................38
SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ...............................................................38
Introduction to the Systematic Review ........................................................................38
Purpose of Systematic Review of Literature ...............................................................39
Structure of the Systematic Review Chapter ...............................................................40 SUCCESSFULLY LEADING NEEDED ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE vii
Identification and Discussion of the Theoretical Lenses .............................................41
Theoretical Lens 1: Organizational Change Management Theory ..................41
Theoretical Lens 2: Resistance to Change Theory ..........................................42
Theoretical Lens Discussion ............................................................................43
Critical Review and Evaluation of the Literature ........................................................44
Themes Revealed from the Review of Literature ............................................45
The Critical Review within Research Questions and Themes .........................46
Research Question 1: Which leadership strategies will successfully manage needed organizational change? ........................................................................47
Research Question 2: Which leadership strategies will successfully manage employee resistance during needed organizational change? ...........................64
Research Question 3: In which ways can successfully leading the implementation of change positively affect organizational performance? ......92
Research Question 4: In which ways can successfully leading the implementation of change positively affect employee satisfaction? ...............92
Critical Review and Evaluation of the Literature Discussion ..........................99
Review of the Research Propositions ........................................................................100
Summary ....................................................................................................................101
CHAPTER 4 ..........................................................................................................................102
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION..........................................................................................102
Introduction ................................................................................................................102
Purpose of the Dissertation ........................................................................................102
Restatement of the Research Questions .....................................................................103
Presentation and Analysis of the Findings .................................................................104
Research Question 1 Content Area: Strategies for Leading Organizational Change ...........................................................................................................105
Summary findings for RQ1 Content Area .....................................................114
Research Question 2 Content Area: Strategies for Managing Resistance .....116 SUCCESSFULLY LEADING NEEDED ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE viii
Summary findings for RQ2 Content Area .....................................................128
Research Question 3 and 4 Content Area: Impact on Organizational Performance and Impact on Staff Satisfaction...............................................130
Summary of findings for RQ3 and RQ4 Content Area..................................134
Discussion ..................................................................................................................135
Alternative Perspectives.............................................................................................136
Learning Approach to Change Management .................................................136
Summary ....................................................................................................................138
CHAPTER 5 ..........................................................................................................................140
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ..........................................................................................140
Introduction to the Conceptual Framework ...............................................................140
Restatement of Purpose and Research Questions ......................................................141
The Message in the Literature Review ......................................................................141
Change Management .....................................................................................142
Strategies for Leading Organizational Change ..............................................144
Strategies for Managing Resistance ...............................................................144
Impact on Organizational Performance and Staff Satisfaction ......................145
Themes generated from systematic review of literature ................................145
Research Question 1Themes: 1) Leading change, 2) Empowerment, 3) Shared Vision, 4) Trust ..............................................................................................146
Research Question 2 Themes: 1) Resistance 2) Communication and Knowledge, 3) Commitment to Change, 4) Planning, 5) Organizational Culture............................................................................................................147
Research Question 3 & 4 Themes: 1) Hope and Optimism and 2) Contingent Rewards..........................................................................................................148
Emergent Themes ..........................................................................................149
The Conceptual Framework .......................................................................................150
Summary ....................................................................................................................152 SUCCESSFULLY LEADING NEEDED ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE ix
CHAPTER 6 ..........................................................................................................................154
CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND TRENDS ..........................................................154
Introduction ................................................................................................................154
Overall Conclusions ...................................................................................................155
Leading Change .............................................................................................156
Managing Resistance .....................................................................................157
Change and its Impact on Staff Satisfaction and Organizational Performance158
Implications for Management/Practitioner ................................................................161
Implications of Emerging Trends ..............................................................................162
Innovation and Technology ...........................................................................163
Environmental Factors ...................................................................................164
Limitations and Areas for Future Research ...............................................................165
Summary ....................................................................................................................165
References ..............................................................................................................................167
Appendix A Search String and Results ..................................................................................186
Appendix B Quality Assessment Too ....................................................................................187
Appendix D Subject Matter Expert invitation and questionnaire ..........................................194
Appendix E Subject Matter Expert (SME) Background ........................................................200
Appendix F Subject Matter Expert (SME) Feedback ............................................................201
Appendix G Change Management Strategies ........................................................................204
Appendix H Author(s) and Emergent Themes from the Literature .......................................207
SUCCESSFULLY LEADING NEEDED ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE x
List of Figures
Figure 1. Lewin’s three-phase model of change. Adapted from Field Theory in Social Science by K. Lewin, 1947, Harper and Row, New York, NY. .......................................3
Figure 2. Schein’s (1980) extension of Lewin’s (1947) three-phase change model. Adapted From Organizational Psychology (3rd ed. ) by E. H. Schein, 1980, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. .......................................................................................................4
Figure 3. Transformational goals. Source: Organizing for Successful Change Management: A McKinsey Global Survey by McKinsey Quarterly, June 2006, McKinsey & Company, London, UK. ....................................................................................................9
Figure 4. The Four Elements of Evidence-Based Management. Source: Briner, Denyer, and Rousseau, 2009, p. 22 .....................................................................................................22
Figure 5. Three Ways of Mixing Quantitative and Qualitative Data.
UMUC - European Division - Mason G Daly - Christmas 1962
No full textEurope;Hoffmann, RosemaryChristmas 1962
This is a great occasion. Our little organization has become a big organization. We are delighted that so many former employees came to join us tonight. All of our guests tonight are warmly welcomed.
We have become a big staff and we are in a big year. We have here a big gift, obviously. It is the gift of the year. Its proportions are baffling and mysterious.
I do not know much about its contents, but I want to assure Ann Reed that it is not all of those official records which have not come in; I want to assure Marge Fry that it is not late registration from madrid; i want to assure bill leffland that it is not an IBM machine; I want to assure the house printery that it is not another employee ; or another room for an employee; there is the rumor that it may be a Westphalian ham that has ripened into something larger than life size.
There is nothing to, do but see just what it is.
There is a little item not on the program which the chairmen did not give me permission to do. But I am going to do it anyway. There are a few advantages to being a Director, and this little chore is one of the happiest ones I have had. It is the first time I have played this role, and I am a little shaky over the responsibility. I am even quite emotional about it. It is a role that I expect to play one day, when I am much more aged and experienced, to be specific when my daughters are grown young ladies . My emotion, my shakiness stems from two things: joy and pleasure at being asked to be sort of a daddy to an already grown up young woman, shock at being considered already old and dignified enough to take on the daddy role. But to get on with it: I am over=whelmed with the pleasure and responsibility of announcing for our broken up beauty Johanna Martin that she is engaged to Marry It. LeeDarrow.
Now let me continue with just this much. Unless the Army gets to playing musical assignments with Lt. Darrow, we do not lose Johanna. For 'at least another couple of years we should be dialing number 39 and hear that very lovely and gracious voice saying Admissions Office, Mrs. Darrow speaking. For that we rejoice. Of course Mrs. Reed will be burdened with the fear of a pregnancy from another source, but I’ll let Ann take that up with the Lt. I would be very bad advising in that area. So far as I know no wedding date has yet been set. Presumably it will have to wait a while at least until that grotesque cast is removed from our broken beauty. For heaven's sake Lt., keep that gal off the ski slopes. Mrs. Reed simply cannot be worrying about you two that much.
From all of these Marylnders gathered here, Lt. Darrow, let me say that, you have raided our camp in the most pleasant and thoughtful manner, that we all know you are getting a wonderful and remarkable young woman, that we are all sure that your future will be a golden future